THE EFFECTS OF GENRE AND MODE IN COMPUTER GAMES

THE EFFECTS OF GENRE AND MODE IN COMPUTER GAMES FOR

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO

THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

MEHMET EMRE ALTINBAŞ

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR

THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

JULY 2023

Approval of the thesis:

THE EFFECTS OF GENRE AND MODE IN COMPUTER GAMES FOR

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING

submitted by MEHMET EMRE ALTINBAŞ in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Language Teaching,

the Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University by,

Prof. Dr. Sadettin KİRAZCI

Dean

Graduate School of Social Sciences

Prof. Dr. Nurten BİRLİK

Head of Department

Department of Foreign Language Education

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Perihan SAVAŞ

Supervisor

Department of Foreign Language Education

Examining Committee Members:

Prof. Dr. Arif ALTUN (Head of the Examining Committee)

Hacettepe University

Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Perihan SAVAŞ (Supervisor)

Middle East Technical University

Department of Foreign Language Education

Prof. Dr. Çiler HATİPOĞLU

Middle East Technical University

Department of Foreign Language Education

Assist. Prof. Dr. Necmi AKŞİT

İ. D. Bilkent University

Department of Foreign Language Education

Assist. Prof. Dr. Tijen AKŞİT

İ. D. Bilkent University

Department of Foreign Language Education

iii

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and

presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare

that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all

material and results that are not original to this work.

Name, Last Name: Mehmet Emre ALTINBAŞ

Signature:

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF GENRE AND MODE IN COMPUTER GAMES FOR

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING

ALTINBAŞ, Mehmet Emre

Ph.D., Department of English Language Teaching

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Perihan SAVAŞ

July 2023, 317 pages

The present study aimed to uncover whether there is a significant difference

across and within computer games with different modes and genres in terms of target

language learning. To this end, a sequential explanatory mixed-method research

design was used. Initially, a questionnaire was implemented with a group of gamer

learners of English experienced in major game modes and genres to find out about the

perceived frequency of learning and practicing target language knowledge and skills

in these games. Following this, observations of game streams from each game mode

and genre combination were carried out to uncover the activities of language practicing

with their durations and frequencies. Finally, interviews were carried out with

participants specifically interested in certain game mode and genre combinations to

understand their opinions about language learning in these games. The findings show

that there are significant differences across and within different game modes and

genres with regard to language learning, along with certain similarities. Gamer

language learners are involved in distinct activities in these game modes and genres

with varying frequencies and durations. They experience specific opportunities and

challenges, and they have certain recommendations and expectations for the

improvement of language learning in different game modes and genres. Based on the

findings, the study presents a comprehensive overview of learning and practicing

target language knowledge and skills in different game modes and genres and

identifies optimal game mode and genre combinations for learning and practicing

specific target language knowledge and skills for academic and practical interests.

Keywords: Computer Games, Game Modes, Game Genres, Learning English as a

Foreign Language

ÖZ

BİLGİSAYAR OYUNLARINDA MOD VE TÜRÜN İNGİLİZ DİLİ ÖĞRENİMİ

İÇİN ETKİLERİ

ALTINBAŞ, Mehmet Emre

Doktora, İngiliz Dili Öğretimi Bölümü

Tez Yöneticisi, Doç. Dr. Perihan SAVAŞ

Temmuz 2023, 317 sayfa

Mevcut çalışma farklı modlara ve türlere sahip bilgisayar oyunlarının

içerisinde ve arasında dil öğrenimi açısından önemli bir fark olup olmadığını ortaya

çıkarmayı hedeflemiştir. Bu doğrultuda açımlayıcı sıralı karma araştırma deseni

kullanılmıştır. Öncelikle ana oyun modları ve türlerinde deneyimli İngilizce

öğrencileri ile farklı oyun modu ve türlerinde algılanan hedef dil bilgileri ve

becerilerinin öğrenilme ve uygulanma sıklığını bulmak amacıyla bir anket

uygulanmıştır. Sonrasında her bir oyun modu ve türünde gerçekleşen dil kullanımı

aktivitelerini sıklıkları ve süreleri ile ortaya çıkarmak adına oyun yayını gözlemleri

yapılmıştır. Son olarak, belirli oyun modu ve türlerine özellikle ilgi duyan katılımcılar

ile farklı oyun modu ve türlerinde yabancı dil öğrenimine dair görüşlerini öğrenmek

adına görüşmeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bulgular belirli benzerliklerin yanı sıra farklı

oyun modları ve türlerinin içerisinde ve arasında dil öğrenimi açısından önemli

farklılıklar olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Oyuncu dil öğrencileri bu oyun modları ve

türlerinde değişen sıklıkta ve sürelerde farklı aktivitelerde bulunmaktadırlar. Farklı

oyun modu ve türlerinde değişik imkanlar ve zorluklar deneyimlemekteler ve bu oyun

modu ve türlerinde dil öğreniminin artırılması için belirli önerilere ve beklentilere

sahipler. Çalışma bu sonuçlara dayalı olarak farklı oyun modlarında ve türlerinde dil

öğrenimine yönelik kapsamlı bir genel bakış sunmakla beraber akademik ve pratik

vii

ilgiler doğrultusunda belirli hedef dil bilgisi ve becerilerinin öğrenilmesi ve

uygulamaya dökülmesi konusunda optimal oyun modu ve türü kombinasyonları

belirlemektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Bilgisayar Oyunları, Oyun Modları, Oyun Türleri, Yabancı Dil

Olarak İngilizce Öğrenimi

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to several people for their valuable

contributions to me throughout my doctoral journey. Their invaluable contributions

have made this incredible journey more effective and enjoyable for me.

First of all, I would like to start with expressing how grateful I am to my

supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Perihan Savaş for guiding me in my doctoral studies.

Without her support, my doctoral education and this study wouldn’t be complete. She

has always encouraged me to pursue my interests and helped me become a better

researcher.

I would also like to give special thanks to the monitoring committee members

Prof. Dr. Arif Altun and Prof. Dr. Çiler Hatipoğlu for their insightful contributions and

feedback during the various stages of the dissertation. Their valuable suggestions and

helpful feedback have enabled this study to become better throughout the process. I

would also like to express my heartfelt thanks to examining committee members

Assist. Prof. Dr. Necmi Akşit and Assist. Prof. Dr. Tijen Akşit for their invaluable

suggestions for the improvement of the study. They generously provided their

knowledge and expertise for the improvement of the study.

My heartfelt thanks are also to the professors whose courses I have taken at the

beginning of my doctoral studies. I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Ayşegül Daloğlu, Prof. Dr.

Hüsnü Enginarlar, Prof. Dr. Nurdan Gürbüz, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Duygu Sarısoy and Dr.

Deniz Şallı Çopur for all the precious learning experience they provided in their

classes. I always enjoyed attending their classes. I should also offer my thanks to my

classmates in all the courses I have taken in the program. I learned a lot from my

classmates in our discussions and reflections during classes. In addition to this, we had

a great time both in and out of lessons. I am grateful for all the valuable time we have

spent together.

I would also like to thank the Scientific and Technological Research Council

of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) for supporting my doctoral studies.

Lastly, my deepest thanks are for my dear wife, Fadime. Her endless support

to me throughout my doctoral studies, just like in all parts of my life, has given me

hope and strength, as always. I wouldn’t have been able to complete my studies

without her loving presence by my side.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLAGIARISM ........................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iv

ÖZ ................................................................................................................................ vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. x

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... xvii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... xix

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1

1.0. Presentation ................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Theoretical Background .................................................................................... 1

1.2. Operational Concepts Related to English Language Learning within the

Present Study ............................................................................................................ 6

1.3. The Need for the Study ...................................................................................... 8

1.4. Significance of the Study ................................................................................. 13

1.5. Research Questions.......................................................................................... 15

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 17

2.0. Presentation ..................................................................................................... 17

2.1. Computer Assisted Language Learning .......................................................... 17

2.2. Commercial Computer Games and Learning Target Language Vocabulary .. 24

2.3. Commercial Computer Games and Learning Target Language Grammar ...... 35

2.4. Commercial Computer Games and Improving Target Language Skills ......... 39

METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 49

3.0. Presentation ..................................................................................................... 49

3.1. Overview of the Methodology ......................................................................... 49

CHAPTERS

xi 
 
3.1. Participants ...................................................................................................... 50 
3.2. Data Collection Tools and Procedure .............................................................. 56 
3.2.1 Questionnaire ............................................................................................. 57 
3.2.2. Observation ............................................................................................... 60 
3.2.2. Interview ................................................................................................... 69 
3.3. Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 71 
3.3.1. Analysis of the Questionnaire ................................................................... 73 
3.3.2 Analysis of the Observations ..................................................................... 74 
3.3.3. Analysis of the Interviews ........................................................................ 75 
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................. 77 
4.0. Presentation ..................................................................................................... 77 
4.1. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes.......................... 77 
4.1.1. Overall Findings of the Comparison of Single-player and     
Multiplayer Game Modes .............................................................................. 79 
4.1.2. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based     
on Vocabulary Learning ................................................................................. 79 
4.1.3. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based     
on Grammar Learning .................................................................................... 80 
4.1.4. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based     
on Reading Practice........................................................................................ 81 
4.1.5. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based     
on Listening Practice ...................................................................................... 82 
4.1.6. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based     
on Writing Practice ........................................................................................ 83 
4.1.7. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based     
on Speaking Practice ...................................................................................... 84 
4.2. Comparison of the Genres Based on Target Language Knowledge and     
Skills ....................................................................................................................... 85 

xii 
 
4.2.1. Overall Findings of the Comparison of the Genres Based on Target 
Language Knowledge and Skills .................................................................... 86 
4.2.2. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Vocabulary 
Learning ......................................................................................................... 87 
4.2.3. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Grammar 
Learning ......................................................................................................... 88 
4.2.4. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Reading  
Practice ........................................................................................................... 89 
4.2.5. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Listening 
Practice ........................................................................................................... 90 
4.2.6. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Writing   
Practice ........................................................................................................... 91 
4.2.7. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Speaking 
Practice ........................................................................................................... 92 
4.3. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types within    
Each Genre ............................................................................................................. 93 
4.3.1. Overall Findings of the Comparison of the Target Language 
Knowledge and Skill Types Based on Each Genre ........................................ 94 
4.3.2. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types   
Based on Action Genre .................................................................................. 95 
4.3.3. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types  
Based on Adventure Genre ............................................................................ 97 
4.3.4. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types  
Based on Role-playing Genre ........................................................................ 99 
4.3.5. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types  
Based on Strategy Genre .............................................................................. 101 
4.3.6. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types  
Based on Simulation Genre .......................................................................... 103 
4.4. Activities of Language Practicing Observed in Different Computer Game 
Modes and Genres ................................................................................................ 106 

xiii 
 
4.1. Overview of the Activities of Language Practicing in the Light of      
Game Mode Comparison .................................................................................. 106 
4.2. Overview of the Activities of Language Practicing in the Light of      
Game Genre Comparison.................................................................................. 107 
4.3. Overview of the Activities of Language Practicing in the Light of 
Language Skills Comparison ............................................................................ 108 
4.4. Activities of Language Practicing Observed in Different Game Modes  
and Genres ........................................................................................................ 111 
4.4.1. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Action Games ............ 112 
4.4.2. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Adventure Games ...... 118 
4.4.3. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Role-playing Games .. 126 
4.4.4. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Strategy Games .......... 133 
4.4.5. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Simulation Games ..... 139 
5. Opinions of Gamer Learners of English Regarding Language Learning in 
Different Game Modes and Genres ...................................................................... 141 
5.1. Overview of Interview Findings ............................................................. 141 
5.2. Opportunities Provided by Computer Games for Language Learning ... 144 
5.3. Limitations of Computer Games for Language Learning ....................... 148 
5.4. Ways of language Learning and Practicing in Computer Games ........... 151 
5.5. Opinions about the Previous Findings of the Study ............................... 165 
5.6. Suggestions for Gamer Language Learners ............................................ 170 
5.7. Expectations of Gamer Language Learners from Computer Games ...... 173 
DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 176 
0. Presentation ................................................................................................... 176 
1. Overview of the Findings .............................................................................. 176 
2. An Overview for Language Learning and Practicing in Different Game  
Modes and Genres ................................................................................................ 179 
2.1. Single-player Action Games ................................................................... 187 

xiv 
 
2.2. Multiplayer Action Games ...................................................................... 188 
2.3. Single-player Adventure Games ............................................................. 191 
2.4. Multiplayer Adventure Games ................................................................ 192 
2.5. Single-player Role-playing Games ......................................................... 194 
2.6. Multiplayer Role-playing Games ............................................................ 196 
2.7. Single-player Strategy Games ................................................................. 199 
2.8. Multiplayer Strategy Games ................................................................... 201 
2.9. Single-player Simulation Games ............................................................ 203 
2.10. Multiplayer Simulation Games ............................................................. 204 
3. A Guide for Optimal Game Mode and Genre Combinations in Learning      
and Practicing Specific Target Language Knowledge and Skills Based on the   
Findings ................................................................................................................ 207 
3.1. Vocabulary Learning .............................................................................. 209 
3.2. Grammar Learning .................................................................................. 211 
3.3. Reading Practice ..................................................................................... 213 
3.4. Listening Practice .................................................................................... 216 
3.5. Writing Practice ...................................................................................... 219 
3.6. Speaking Practice .................................................................................... 221 
4. Discussion of the Findings in View of Existing Literature ........................... 223 
4.1. Discussion of the Findings Related to Game Mode Comparison in      
View of Existing Literature .............................................................................. 223 
4.2. Discussion of the Findings Related to Genre Comparison in View of 
Existing Literature ............................................................................................ 227 
4.3. Discussion of the Findings Related to Target Language Knowledge       
and Skills Comparison in View of Existing Literature ..................................... 232 
4.4. Discussion of the Findings Related to Activities of Target Language 
Learning and Practicing in View of Existing Literature ................................... 233 
4.5. Discussion of the Findings Related to the Opinions of Gamers on 
Computer Games and Language Learning in View of Existing Literature ...... 236 

xv 
 
5.5. Implications for Research .............................................................................. 238 
5.5.1. Implications for Research Based on Game Mode Comparison .............. 238 
5.5.2. Implications for Research Based on Genre Comparison ........................ 240 
5.5.3. Implications for Research Based on Target Language Knowledge and 
Skills Comparison ............................................................................................. 243 
5.5.4. Implications for Research Based on Activities of Target Language 
Learning and Practicing .................................................................................... 244 
5.5.5. Implications for Research Based on the Opinions of Gamers on   
Computer Games and Language Learning ....................................................... 246 
5.6. Implications for Practice................................................................................ 248 
5.6.1. Implications on Game Mode Comparison for Practice .......................... 248 
5.6.2. Implications on Genre Comparison for Practice .................................... 249 
5.6.3. Implications on Target Language Knowledge and Skills Comparison     
for Practice ........................................................................................................ 252 
5.6.4. Implications on Activities of Language Learning and Practicing for 
Practice.............................................................................................................. 254 
5.6.5. Implications on the Opinions of Gamers on Computer Games and 
Language Learning for Practice ........................................................................ 256 
5.7. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research ....................................... 259 
5.7.1. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to Game    
Mode Comparison............................................................................................. 259 
5.7.2. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to Genre 
Comparison ....................................................................................................... 260 
5.7.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to Target 
Language Knowledge and Skills Comparison .................................................. 261 
5.7.4. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to Activities   
of Target Language Learning and Practicing ................................................... 262 
5.7.5. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to Opinions    
of Gamers on Computer Games and Language Learning ................................. 263 

xvi

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 265

APPENDICES

A. QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................. 277

B. STREAM OBSERVATION FORM ................................................................... 284

C. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .......................................... 285

D. LIST OF CODES, CATEGORIES AND THEMES OF THE INTERVIEW ..... 286

E. APPROVAL OF THE HUMAN SUBJECTS ETHICS COMMITTEE ............. 294

F. CURRICULUM VITAE ...................................................................................... 295

G. TURKISH SUMMARY / TÜRKÇE ÖZET ........................................................ 298

H. THESIS PERMISSION FORM / TEZ İZİN FORMU ........................................ 317

xvii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 An overview of participants’ demographic information .............................. 52

Table 2 Overview of interview participants .............................................................. 70

Table 3 Summary of the research questions, data collection tools and data

analysis techniques ..................................................................................................... 72

Table 4 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on action genre (column

oriented) ..................................................................................................................... 96

Table 5 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on adventure genre (column

oriented) ..................................................................................................................... 98

Table 6 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on role-playing genre

(column oriented) ..................................................................................................... 101

Table 7 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on strategy genre (column

oriented) ................................................................................................................... 103

Table 8 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on simulation genre

(column oriented) ..................................................................................................... 105

Table 9 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player action

game ......................................................................................................................... 113

Table 10 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer action

game ......................................................................................................................... 115

Table 11 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player adventure

game ......................................................................................................................... 119

Table 12 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer adventure

game ......................................................................................................................... 122

Table 13 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player

role-playing game..................................................................................................... 127

Table 14 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer

role-playing game..................................................................................................... 130

Table 15 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player strategy

game ......................................................................................................................... 134

Table 16 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer strategy

game ......................................................................................................................... 136

xviii

Table 17 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player

simulation game ....................................................................................................... 139

Table 18 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player

simulation game ....................................................................................................... 140

Table 19 An overview of language learning in different game modes and genres

based on the findings ................................................................................................ 181

xix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Overview of the procedure ......................................................................... 51

Figure 2 Call of Duty: Modern Warfare.................................................................... 62

Figure 3 Counter Strike: Global Offensive ............................................................... 63

Figure 4 The Walking Dead ...................................................................................... 64

Figure 5 Minecraft ..................................................................................................... 64

Figure 6 The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt ................................................................... 65

Figure 7 World of Warcraft ....................................................................................... 66

Figure 8 Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition ........................................................ 67

Figure 9 League of Legends ...................................................................................... 67

Figure 10 Euro Truck Simulator 2 ............................................................................ 68

Figure 11 FIFA 22 ..................................................................................................... 68

Figure 12 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

overall vocabulary learning frequency ....................................................................... 80

Figure 13 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

overall grammar learning frequency .......................................................................... 81

Figure 14 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

reading practice frequency ......................................................................................... 82

Figure 15 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

listening practice frequency ....................................................................................... 83

Figure 16 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

writing practice frequency.......................................................................................... 84

Figure 17 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

speaking practice frequency ....................................................................................... 85

Figure 18 Comparison of the genres based on overall vocabulary learning

frequency .................................................................................................................... 87

Figure 19 Comparison of the genres based on overall grammar learning

frequency .................................................................................................................... 88

Figure 20 Comparison of the genres based on reading practice frequency .............. 89

Figure 21 Comparison of the genres based on listening practice frequency ............. 90

Figure 22 Comparison of the genres based on writing practice frequency ............... 92

Figure 23 Comparison of the genres based on speaking practice frequency ............ 93

Figure 24 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on action genre ...................................................... 95

Figure 25 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on adventure genre: ............................................... 97

Figure 26 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on role-playing genre ............................................. 99

Figure 27 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on strategy genre .................................................. 102

Figure 28 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on strategy genre .................................................. 104

Figure 29 Overview of themes and categories ........................................................ 142

Figure 30 Language learning in single-player action games ................................... 188

Figure 31 Language learning in multiplayer action games ..................................... 190

Figure 32 Language learning in single-player adventure games ............................. 192

Figure 33 Language learning in multiplayer adventure games ............................... 194

Figure 34 Language learning in single-player role-playing games ......................... 196

Figure 35 Language learning in multiplayer role-playing games ........................... 198

Figure 36 Language learning in single-player strategy games ................................ 200

Figure 37 Language learning in multiplayer strategy games .................................. 202

Figure 38 Language learning in single-player simulation games ............................ 204

Figure 39 Language learning in multiplayer simulation games .............................. 206

Figure 40 Optimal Game Mode and Genre Combinations for Learning and

Practicing Target Language Knowledge and Skills ................................................. 208

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.0. Presentation

In this chapter, the theoretical background of computer games and language

learning is outlined and the rationale for the research study is put forward. Firstly,

language learning theories associated with computer games and language learning are

presented via conceptual and empirical findings in the literature. Following this, the

need for the investigation of the potential effects of game modes and genres on

computer games and language learning is argued with the gap in the literature and the

importance of investigating this issue. Finally, the research questions that formed the

basis of the research study are presented.

1.1. Theoretical Background

Game-based language learning is as old as Computer Assisted Language

Learning (CALL) itself. One of the earliest systematic applications of CALL is

traditionally regarded as PLATO (Programmed Logic/Learning for Automated

Teaching Operations), which was founded in the University of Illinois in 1959 to teach

different subject areas including languages (Beatty, 2010, p. 20). Computer games that

were developed for the purpose of language learning and teaching were included in

PLATO system (Peterson, 2013, p. 61). Ever since the 1950s, serious games (games

that are specifically designed for learning) and commercial games (games that are

designed primarily for entertainment purposes) have been utilized for learning and

teaching languages. As a natural consequence of the tendency of students and teachers

to use computer games for learning and teaching languages, these games have also

been a point of inquiry among researchers interested in CALL.

A significant point of inquiry of the academic investigations in computer games

and language learning has been its theoretical rationale. Peterson (2013) points out the

studies of García-Carbonell et al. (2001), Thorne et al. (2009), and Zhao and Lai (2009)

in the identification of the theoretical background of computer games and language

learning (pp. 55-60). These researchers evaluated the characteristics of computer

games and provided explanations on how these characteristics could be beneficial for

language learning based on theories of gaming, learning, and language learning,

relating to concepts such as input and monitor (Krashen, 1982; Krashen, 1985),

interaction and negotiation of meaning (Long, 1981; Long, 1985), and output (Swain,

1993). Garcia-Carbonell et al.’s study was an overall evaluation of computer games

and simulations in the development of communicative competence in a second

language. The researchers argue for the language learning benefits of computer games

from the perspective of cognitive and interactionist approaches to SLA. The

negotiation of meaning during in-game tasks and the development of communicative

competence with the use of language skills in simulations and computer games were

emphasized in terms of their benefits for language learning. In addition to these,

exposure to comprehensible input, learner-centeredness, and a decrease in affective

factors with increased motivation were also underlined as factors that facilitate

language learning through simulations and computer games.

Unlike Garcia-Carbonell et al. (2001), the studies of Thorne et al. (2009), and

Zhao and Lai (2009) specifically targeted MMO (Massively Multiplayer Online)

games and MMORPGs (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Games)

respectively. Thorne et al. evaluated the benefits of MMO games from the perspectives

of language socialization theory and situated learning theory. They argue that the

opportunities for language use and communication as a result of the inevitable

collaboration among players in these games facilitate language socialization. In

addition, they also highlight the goal-oriented nature and meaningfulness of these

communicative activities between players as contributing factors for language

learning. Zhao and Lai dwelled on the benefits of MMORPGs in foreign language

learning from the viewpoint of cognitive and sociocultural approaches to second

language acquisition (SLA). They hold that opportunities for receiving target language

input through in-game elements and meaningful conversational interactions with other

players including native speakers of English are valuable for learning language and

culture. Furthermore, they argue that MMORPGs increase learner motivation by

incorporating learning language and culture, and decrease the anxiety of learners by

creating an environment where they can overcome the inhibition of using the language

in front of their peers, which eventually reduces their affective filter. Even though the

studies of Thorne et al., and Zhao and Lai focus specifically on MMO games and

MMORPGs, most of the implications in these studies are also applicable to other

computer game genres.

Another theory evaluated within the scope of computer games and language

learning is involvement load hypothesis. Cornillie et al. (2010) discussed the

implications of the involvement load hypothesis by Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) in their

study which dwelt on the role of role-playing games (RPGs). The involvement load

hypothesis advocates for increased retention of acquired vocabulary items in case the

involvement stimulated by the task is high based on the need for a specific vocabulary

item for the completion of the task, the search for the vocabulary item through various

means, and the evaluation of the vocabulary item with other items. Cheung and

Harrison’s (1992) study is provided in the paper as an example of the involvement

factor of need in that the retention of vocabulary items may be higher if their

significance for the completion of the task is high, as well. The studies of Miller and

Hegelheimer (2006) and Ranalli (2008) are put forward as investigations that can be

regarded within the view of the involvement factor of search based on the

concentration of learners on specific vocabulary items and the inquiry of these. An

example of the involvement factor of evaluation is given through the study of Neville

et al. (2009) on the basis of detailed descriptions of items or events in RPGs, which

require learners to evaluate and find vocabulary items that are appropriate for the

situation for the story to proceed.

The theory of affordances has also been associated with computer games and

language learning. In their review, Reinhardt and Thorne (2020) associate digital

games and language learning with affordances theory, by underlining a recent interest

among researchers to employ the ecological concept of affordance by Gibson (1979)

in trying to understand the possibilities of learning in gaming environments. The study

is centered around eight main game-based affordances for language learning. The first

affordance is the involvement of gamer learners in contextualized linguistic

environments in which they are exposed to target language items in interactional

settings. Secondly, the affordance of time and iterative play is underlined, considering

the opportunity of adjusting the normal progression of time and repeatability of the

tasks in digital games. Thirdly, the affordance of games in providing gamer language

learners a self-contained environment of doing practice in a target language by

concealing their identities, which may increase the amount of risk-taking and decrease

the potential negative effects of anxiety, is pointed out. The fourth affordance is related

to the meaningful use of language in digital games in pursuit of a specific goal and the

opportunity to receive feedback through in-game elements and conversations. The fifth

affordance dwelt on the opportunities provided by digital games in interacting with

others to realize common goals through languaging and coordination. The sixth

affordance is related to the development of identity performance, which is regarded as

an integral part of L2 learning, through accommodation and incorporation of different

perspectives, cultures, and understandings. The seventh affordance is specific to

mobile digital games, specifically the convenience provided by them in choosing when

and where to play games, and the contextual richness offered by them through features

such as augmented reality. The final affordance is the opportunities provided by digital

games in having free and independent practicing of an L2 outside the scope of formal

teaching, which is the case of millions of gamers all over the world.

The affordances theory was not the only theoretical consideration of digital

games and language learning in the review of Reinhardt and Thorne (2020). They also

evaluated the implications of game-based language learning in the light of major

approaches to SLA. In the review, features of digital games such as repeated exposure

to a target language, reinforcement, and feedback were associated with the principles

of a structural view of SLA, a behaviorist approach which primes the role of repetitive

practice in the acquisition of second languages. Elements like comprehensible input,

meaningful language use, and negotiation of meaning through interactions were

related to cognitive approaches to SLA, which highlight the role of cognitive processes

in the acquisition of languages. Finally, opportunities provided by games in being

involved with online communication, collaboration, and participation in communities

were linked with the sociocultural view of SLA, which point out the role of the role of

social relations and interactions in the acquisition of languages.

Zone of proximal development is another theory associated with computer

games and language learning. Reviewing the gaming and language learning literature,

Hansen (2018) related some language learning activities taking place in computer

game environments to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, which is defined as

what a learner can learn through guidance. The study indicates that the source of

guidance in language learning is usually regarded as a teacher or a more educated

person. However, the researcher argues that a number of elements in a game

environment can provide a similar guidance for the zone of proximal development to

occur. Focusing on World of Warcraft, the instructions provided to players and the

interactions carried out within game through often simplified texts, and the opportunity

of players to be engaged with such content as many times as needed for a satisfactory

level of comprehension based on their language proficiency are highlighted as

facilitators of zone of proximal development for language learners.

Besides the theoretical justification of computer games and language learning,

researchers have also been interested in the empirical investigation of the hypothesized

benefits of computer games in language learning. Several studies have been carried

out in this regard to find out whether computer games are beneficial for improving

target language knowledge and skills. For example, computer games were empirically

investigated and found beneficial for learning vocabulary in the studies of Palmberg

(1988), Miller and Hegelheimer (2006), Rankin et al. (2009), Bakar and Nosratirad

(2013), Huang and Yang (2014), Franciosi (2017), Chen et al. (2020), and Rahman

and Angraeni (2020). Similarly, it was found in the studies of Miller and Hegelheimer

(2006), and Turgut and İrgin (2009) that computer games were beneficial for learning

target language grammar, as well. Along with these, studies that were conducted by

Rankin et al. (2009), De Wilde and Eyckmans (2017), Shahrokni et al. (2020), and

Yang and Chen (2020) can be exemplified for the advantages for developing target

language skills in computer games.

The exposure to English in computer games has been uncovered in a number

of recent studies dwelling on the role digital technology in language learning. In a

study investigating the digital practices of English learners, Dincer (2020) found out

that online games provided significant benefits for Turkish learners in terms of

learning target language grammar and practicing language skills. The chances of

communicating with other English speakers and learning new language structures in

these games were highlighted as the benefits of computer games for language learning.

A review of studies on technology-enhanced language learning by Shadiev and Yang

(2020) also uncovered the role of computer games in language learning. In fact, digital

games were found to be the most frequently used technology by language learners,

along with online videos. The researchers highlighted the potential use of computer

games through in-class activities and as part of out-of-class activities for the purpose

of language learning. Similar findings were also evident in the study of Li and Lan

(2021). The researchers underlined the potential of computer games in improving

language learners’ motivation and having interaction with English speakers by also

noting the need for further studies for increasing the outcome of using games for the

purpose of language learning.

1.2. Operational Concepts Related to English Language Learning within

the Present Study

It is important to understand some key concepts within the scope of the present

study in relation with computer games and language learning. Studies on computer

games and language learning mostly focus on learning target language knowledge, the

learning of vocabulary and/or grammar in computer games in a second or foreign

language, and practicing target language skills, using the four main language skills

(reading, listening, writing and speaking) in a second or foreign language. There are

different definitions and explanations in the field of language learning as to what

learning target language knowledge and practicing target language skills entails.

However, there are certain definitions that can guide us through the meaning of these

expressions. Firstly, target language knowledge and skills as distinct language learning

outcomes are stated in several studies such as the ones by Hall (2010) and Read and

Barcena (2021). The term target language is often associated with vocabulary

knowledge and grammar knowledge as in the study of Kim and Cho (2015) whereas

target language skills are associated with the four main skills, namely reading,

listening, writing and speaking as in the study of Atkinson and Díaz (2000).

Hatch and Brown (1995) put forward a process of vocabulary learning which

involves having sources for encountering new words, getting a clear image of words,

learning the meaning of words, making memory connections between form and

meaning, and using words. According to Nation (2001) vocabulary learning entails

knowing the spoken and written forms along with word parts; forms and meanings,

concepts and referents, and associations of the word; and grammatical functions,

collocations, and constraints of use of a specific word. Ishikawa (2018) defines

grammar learning as “acquiring the abilities to process as well as to produce the target

construction more accurately” (p. 52). The learning of vocabulary and vocabulary can

occur implicitly through natural repeated exposure, as in the form of incidental

learning via meaning focused communicative activities, or can be taught explicitly

through instruction (Ma & Kelly, 2006). Learning target language knowledge is

among core language learning outcomes, thus playing an important role in target

language development (Hall, 2010).

Target language skills, on the other hand, are regarded as the four main skills

of a language, namely reading, listening, writing, and speaking. Language practice is

defined by Tollefson (1999) as how a language is used by a speaker when the freedom

to use a language is provided to the speaker from a variety of languages. Elizawati et

al. (2018) define language skills as “a person's ability to use language in writing,

reading, listening, or speaking” (p. 38). Kholiq (2020), on another hand, defines

language skills as “a person's ability to use their language competencies” (p. 176).

Similar to learning target language knowledge, practicing language skills plays an

important role in target language learning and development (McCabe & Meller, 2004;

Kraemer et al., 2009; Gruber & Kaplan-Rakowski, 2022).

Considering the definitions for target language knowledge and skills, and what

the learning and practicing of these knowledge and skills entails in the literature along

with the scope and aims of this research, the concepts for target language knowledge

and skills are regarded as the following in the study. Target language refers to a

language that is aimed to be learned as a second or a foreign language, such as English

as in the case within this study. Target language knowledge involves vocabulary

knowledge and grammar knowledge. Vocabulary knowledge refers to knowing

spelling, the pronunciation, and the meaning of target language vocabulary items.

Similarly, grammar knowledge refers to knowing the spelling, the pronunciation, and

the meaning of target language grammatical structures. The learning of vocabulary

items and grammar structures can take place implicitly via natural exposure or

explicitly via looking up encountered items and structures. Target language skills

include reading, listening, writing, and speaking. Practicing these skills refers to using

these skills to understand target language input or to communicate with other speakers

of the target language by creating target language output. Considering the theoretical

background of computer games through cognitive and sociocultural approaches to

second language acquisition and the empirical studies in the literature, learning target

language knowledge and practicing target language skills in different computer game

modes and genres are expected to contribute to the target language learning and

development of gamer language learners.

1.3. The Need for the Study

According to Newzoo (2020), there were 2.7 billion gamers worldwide in

2020. In Turkey, the number of gamers was stated as over 30 million as of 2018

(Gaming in Turkey, 2018). An overwhelming majority of these gamers worldwide are

non-native speakers of English, including the gamers in Turkey. Considering the fact

that most computer games have an English interface and most of the written and oral

communications in online games played on international servers are in English, these

non-native speakers are frequently exposed to English, and they are often expected to

communicate with other players in English. As a result, computer games possess a

valuable potential for the improvement of target language knowledge and skills of

numerous English learners all over the world.

Computer games have different genres and modes. Genre relates to how

computer games are classified according to their characteristics, and mode refers to

whether the game is played as single-player or multiplayer. There is not a universal

agreement as to the genre-related categorization of computer games and the lines

among the genres are not always clear-cut. In addition, although there is a dominant

genre for most computer games, games may fall under the category of multiple genres,

as well. Apperley (2008) grouped computer games under the genres of simulation,

strategy, action and role-playing. The genres included in Sherry and Pacheco’s (2006)

study were shooters; puzzle, arcade, card and dice game; fantasy, role-playing and

adventure; quiz and trivia; and sports and simulation. The main video game genres that

were included in a Wikipedia article were action, action-adventure, adventure, role-

playing, simulation, strategy, sports and MMOs (List of video game genres, 2021). As

to the preference of gamers towards these genres, a survey by Statista (2019)

conducted with 44.160 casual gamers aged 16-64 indicated that the %75 of the

participants played action games, %67 played cooperative/multiplayer games, %47

played casual games, %45 played strategy games, %45 played role-playing games and

%39 played sports games. A survey conducted by Opera (2020) on gaming habits of

more than 190.000 participants indicated that the most commonly preferred genres by

female gamers were adventure (61%), role-playing (56%), action (42%), MMORPG

(40%) and strategy (31%), and the most commonly preferred genres by male gamers

were shooters (65%), action (52%), adventure (52%), and role-playing (45%).

Considering their scope and prevalence, the genres that were included as part of the

present study were action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and simulation. Other

genres were not involved either because they were regarded as a subgenre to one of

the aforementioned genres, or they were not so prevalent.

Action games are characterized by the use of physical capabilities such as

demonstrating quick response times and displaying a satisfactory level of hand-eye

coordination in an effort to complete in-game objectives. Action game players are

often required to complete certain levels or achieve a specific goal by eliminating

opponents by using their reflexes in fast-paced scenarios. Some notable subgenres of

action games include shooter games and fighting games. A single character is usually

controlled by players in action games. This character commonly has specific powers

and abilities. Single-player action games generally require players to overcome in-

game elements to complete levels. On the other hand, multiplayer online action games

tend to involve teams competing against each other and they require teammates to

communicate among themselves to defeat the opposing team. Some popular action

games include Counter Strike, Doom, Call of Duty, PUBG, Fortnite, Valorant, Grand

Theft Auto V, Red Dead Redemption II, Batman: Arkham Knight, Super Smash Bros.

Ultimate, and Street Fighter V.

Adventure games offer players an opportunity to set out on an adventurous

journey through the lens of the protagonist. The genre is characterized by exploration

and problem-solving. In adventure games, players often control a protagonist on a

quest to achieve a specific goal. During this journey, the player is expected to explore

the environment and solve puzzles to proceed in the storyline. Adventure games tend

to involve dialogues with NPCs that guide the player through the objectives that need

to be completed. The problem-solving mechanics often depend on such conversations

or visual cues. In contrast with the other genres, the 2D game engine is still widely

preferred in adventure games. In addition to popular 3D adventure games, a number

of 2D adventure games manage to attract a substantial number of players every year.

Some notable adventure games are The Walking Dead, Terraria, Welcome to Elk, The

Curse of the Monkey Island, The Wolf Among Us, The Longest Journey, Grim

Fandango, Primordia and Tales of the Neon Sea.

In role-playing games, players are expected to take the role of a character to

commonly follow a storyline of quests. Role-playing games are typically set in

fictitious scenarios and settings or fantasy worlds. These games can have a linear

design where the players need to follow a predetermined storyline, or they can have

an open-world design in which the player is free to explore and follow multiple

storylines simultaneously. The decisions that the player makes while playing the game

usually has an important impact on the outcome of the game in these games. Character

development is another important feature. Characters tend to acquire new skills and

items as they level up throughout the story, and more information is gathered about

the character as the story progresses. In single-player role-playing games, players are

often required to read and listen to quests that are typically given to the player by non-

playable characters (NPCs). In multiplayer role-playing games such as MMORPGs,

players also communicate with other players by writing and speaking in addition to

following the questline. Some notable role-playing games are The Witcher 3: the Wild

Hunt, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, Dark Souls, World of Warcraft and EverQuest.

Strategy games typically include scenarios in which a player controls a large

number of characters, units, buildings and similar elements to achieve in-game

objectives. These objectives can involve eliminating opponents or completing

particular levels. Strategy games commonly involve some type of warfare which

requires the player to manage resources to produce units and use these units to ensure

victory. Another usual characteristic in strategy games is racing against time. Players

that are good at time management in building infrastructure, creating units and

developing strategies have a greater chance of having success at strategy games. In

strategy games, players generally have an aerial point of view. In addition to managing

the time, units, and resources, controlling the map by frequent explorations through

units is also crucial. Strategy games can turn-based or real-time. Some popular strategy

games include Age of Empires II, Total War Series, Warcraft III, League of Legends,

Defense of the Ancients, Heroes of the Storm, and Sid Meier's Civilization VI.

Simulation games aim at creating a model various real-life situations or

activities. In contrast with the previous genres where the fictitious scenarios are

dominant, simulation games are most often based on real-life scenarios. Whereas the

previous genres are more oriented on completing objectives or achieving victory,

simulation games take its focus as providing players the opportunity to experience an

activity as closely as it actually is in real life. In addition to being designed and played

for the purpose of entertainment, simulation games can be designed and played for

training in a specific area, as well. A number of scenarios such as sports, racing, city-

building, aviation, and daily life can be the focus of simulation games. Some prominent

examples of simulation games include FIFA 21, The Sims 4, Euro Track Simulator 2,

Microsoft Flight Simulator, PES 21, Farming Simulator 19, SimCity, Kerbal Space

Program, and NBA 2K21.

Most computer games can be played in single-player and multi-player game

modes. The single-player mode is most often played offline. In this game mode, the

interaction is often with in-game characters and the environment. Players rely on

themselves to complete objectives or to defeat artificial intelligence. The multiplayer

game mode, on the other hand, involves other players in addition to the individual

player. In multiplayer games, players are typically teamed up with other players in a

pre-determined or random manner, and they compete against similarly created teams,

which is called a Player versus Player (PvP) format. However, not all multiplayer

games include team-based competition. Some multiplayer games have a format of

Player versus Environment (PvE) in which all the players compete against the

environment together. Although the multiplayer game mode can be played on a local

network, the vast majority of multiplayer games are played online. In addition to the

player interacting with in-game characters and the environment, multiplayer games

tend to involve written and oral communication among the players.

Due to their characteristic differences, computer game genres and modes

involve diverse ways of getting exposed to or using the target language. For example,

whereas a single-player role-playing game may often require players to read and listen

to quests to be completed as part of the game, an online adventure game may

necessitate players to listen to and speak to their teammates to increase the likelihood

of winning. Consequently, the exposure to language and the opportunities for language

practice might differ considerably during gaming sessions. There have been some

research studies that have focused on potential differences in different game modes

and genres in terms of language learning in computer games. In their study, Reinhardt

and Thorne (2020) argued that some genres including simulation, adventure, and turn-

based strategy games that allow learners to take their time interacting with in-game

language content at their own pace by also allowing them the opportunity to use

captions are more optimal for language learning than others. They called for large-

scale mixed-methods research studies to investigate language use and language

learning in digital games from multiple perspectives including an evaluation of the

issue across the genres, by building on an earlier call by Sykes and Reinhardt (2012).

A relatively more-detailed evaluation of game types and genres in computer

games and language learning was done by Yudintseva (2015) through an evaluation

of studies in literature. One important identification in the study is a potential challenge

that MMORPGs, adventure, and rhythm games can pose to lower-level language

learners, who might find the content in these games too loaded to deal with. Another

point about genres in the study is a comparison about the exposure to vocabulary. It is

stated that some games with the genres of role-playing, sport, shooter, and strategy

have field-specific terminology whereas in daily-life simulations there is usually

exposure to some of the most frequent words in English. In addition, genres were

compared with regard to their influence on target language skills. For example, the

study indicates that sports and adventure genres are more beneficial to reading and

listening than writing and speaking, and first-person shooters do not display an

important level of development in listening. The researcher further suggests that the

effects of genre on language learning might be at an individual level, depending on the

characteristics of a learner in terms of gender, proficiency, and experience in gaming.

Despite some covering, the potential impact of game modes and genres on

computer games and language learning has largely been understudied throughout the

years. The present study aimed to fill this gap by uncovering the impact of genres and

modes of computer games on learning English as a foreign language from the

perspective of gamer learners of English. Overall, it intends to find out about the

following points. First of all, it seeks to find out whether there is a significant

difference between single-player and multiplayer game modes of computer games in

terms of the perceived frequency of learning and practicing English. Secondly,

potential statistical differences among action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and

simulation genres in terms of the perceived frequency of learning target language and

skills were expected to be revealed. The third aim was to find out about the potential

statistical differences among these genres in terms of the perceived frequency of

learning and practicing target language knowledge and skills. The fourth aim of the

study was to uncover how language learning and practicing activities take place in

different computer game modes and genres. Finally, the study aimed to reveal the

opinions of gamer EFL learners in learning and practicing English in different

computer game modes and genres.

1.4. Significance of the Study

Scientific literature shows that computer games are valuable sources and

environments for language learning. Countless people from all over the world spend

substantial amounts of time on computer games readily. Most of these people are non-

native English speakers and they benefit from computer games in terms of language

learning knowingly or unknowingly. An increasing number of studies on computer

games and language learning aim to provide a deeper understanding of this process.

The present research study aimed to contribute to the scientific literature on computer

games and language learning by uncovering the potential effects of computer game

modes and genres on computer games and language learning. By doing so, it targeted

at enabling a more profound understanding of what potential differences exist across

and within different computer game modes and genres with regard to language

learning through the perceptions and opinions of gamer learners of English. This, in

turn, can provide valuable implications for anyone related to computer games and

language learning such as gamer learners of English, teachers of English, academicians

interested in computer games and language learning, and computer game creators.

First of all, considering the fact that the study aims to examine the opinions of

gamer English learners on the effectiveness of computer game modes and genres in

learning target language knowledge and skills comprehensively, the findings of the

study offer profound perspectives into the theoretical background of computer games

and language learning. The identification of whether computer game modes and genres

have a significant impact on learning target language knowledge and improving target

language skills can contribute to the literature both in terms of interpreting the existing

body of research more effectively and by providing additional directions for further

research in computer games and language learning. From a quantitative perspective,

the outcome of the existing studies with regard to whether computer games are

significantly effective in developing specific target language knowledge and skills and

not significantly effective in developing others can be interpreted more profoundly

based on the quantitative findings of the present study. The qualitative findings, on the

other hand, can help researchers have further insights into why specific computer game

modes and genres are effective or not effective in helping learners improve their target

language skills. The identification of these issues can lead to areas of further research

in which more information can be gathered on the use of computer games in learning

a foreign language.

From a more practical point of view, the findings of the study present insights

for language learners who play computer games regularly. For example, the

identification of whether specific target language knowledge and skill types are

learned or practiced better through a particular mode or genre, whether some target

language knowledge and skill types in a specific computer game mode or genre can be

practiced more frequently compared to others, and what the advantages and

disadvantages of specific computer game genres are in terms of language learning may

increase the language learning benefits learners get from computer games. Getting

more information about the aforementioned issues can also help teachers guide their

students to get more benefits from computer games in terms of language learning and

teaching. Based on any potential differences among computer game modes and genres

with regard to the learning of specific knowledge and skills, language teachers can

guide their gamer learners to play specific modes and genres based on their needs. For

example, relying on a potential outcome in which reading skill is improved

significantly more in a specific computer game genre compared to others, then teachers

can guide students interested in playing computer games and having problems with

target language reading to play games in that genre.

In addition to offering information about potential differences among computer

games with regard to the development of target language knowledge and skills, the

present study can also help learners and teachers identify the target language

knowledge and skill types that specific game modes and genres can contribute the most

and the least. This can aid us in uncovering the knowledge and skill types that are most

likely to be practiced and ignored by players of specific genres and thus guide students

accordingly in order to avoid an unbalanced development of target language skills as

much as possible. For instance, based on a potential outcome in which that a specific

game mode or genre combination is significantly more beneficial for improving

reading and listening skills than writing and speaking, then learners who play these

games regularly can be advised to be engaged in additional activities that can increase

their chances of improving writing and speaking skills in order not to overlook their

development in these skills.

The findings of the present study provide implications for game development,

as well. By uncovering the potential differences and indifferences among and within

computer game modes and genres with regard to the development of target language

knowledge and skills, the findings can have implications for game developers in terms

of which areas of language learning specific game modes and genres are potentially

stronger or weaker at. This would be quite meaningful considering the fact that the

vast majority of the gamers all over the world are non-native speakers of English and

a great many of those have hopes of improving their English knowledge and skills

while playing computer games. Knowing about the pros and cons of game modes and

genres in learning target language knowledge and improving target language skills,

game developers can provide additional features of language support and opportunities

for language exposure and practice in areas where the chances of exposure and practice

are limited in a specific game mode or genre. As an example, depending on a potential

outcome in which a certain genre is significantly less effective in vocabulary learning

compared to other areas of language development, game developers designing

adventure games can be urged to come up with additional features supplemented or

integrated into these games in order to compensate such a disadvantage.

1.5. Research Questions

The following research questions were employed in the study:

1) Is there a significant difference between single-player and multiplayer

computer game modes with regard to the participating gamer learners’ perceived:

(a) learning of target language vocabulary items?

(b) learning of target language grammar structures?

(d) practicing of target language listening?

(e) practicing of target language writing?

(f) practicing of target language speaking?

2) Is there a significant difference among action, adventure, role-playing,

strategy, and simulation genres with regard to the participating gamer learners’

perceived:

(a) learning of target language vocabulary items?

(b) learning of language grammar structures?

(d) practicing of target language listening?

(e) practicing of target language writing?

(f) practicing of target language speaking?

3) Is there a significant difference with regard to the participating gamer

learners’ perceived learning of target language knowledge and practicing of target

language skills within the genre of:

(a) action?

(b) adventure?

(d) strategy?

(e) simulation?

4) What kind of language learning and practicing activities take place in

different computer game modes and genres?

5) What are opinions of participating gamer language learners in terms of

language learning in different game modes and genres?

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. Presentation

This section includes a review of literature on computer assisted language

learning and computer games and language learning. Firstly, it provides a brief

background for the development of computer assisted language learning, and then it

continues with the emergence and development of computer games and language

learning research alongside the main research area. It provides a review of notable

studies conducted on learning target language knowledge and practicing target

language skills via commercial computer games with different game modes and

genres.

2.1. Computer Assisted Language Learning

The origins of CALL can be dated back to the 1950s. One of the first

applications of computer assisted language learning was PLATO, which was

developed by the University of Illinois in 1959 to teach languages through grammar

translation approach. The increasing accessibility of the computers in the following

years led to the development of further CALL programs, from likeminded

perspectives. The early period of CALL was characterized by the utilization of

computers at research facilities for learning languages, which was subject to several

limitations regarding accessibility, cost, and time allocations (Beatty, 2010, p. 19).

This trend, which was termed as Behaviorist CALL by Warschauer (1996), continued

until the 1980s.

In an early study, Rosenbaum (1969) wrote a paper on the use of computers for

learning and testing languages. He stated that computer-based systems had

considerable potential in that they could offer increased practice opportunities for

students compared to traditional learning and teaching. Arguing against focusing only

on the utilization of a computer, the author highlighted the importance of blending the

important instruction principles of classroom-instruction and computer-based

instruction to create a learning environment that includes suitable content, a system

that can enable students to carry out learning tasks, and a monitoring system that can

structure assign tasks to the students on an individual basis.

In their paper, Serwer and Stolurow (1970) explained the instructional project

of an interactive instructional system in language arts, which was an initial stage for a

larger project called ORACLE (Operationally Relevant Activities for Children’s

Language Experiences). The aim of the project was to create a personalized language

arts instructional program which would enable students to get instruction in

accordance with his/her own personal needs, and to be engaged in different types of

interactions with computer aided instruction. Observations during the development of

the project revealed that students had higher reading achievement scores online, visual

discrimination and reading scores had a promising correlation and, a problem in the

identification of what students understand and what they do not understand. The

authors concluded that, despite the need for further studies, the applications were a

step further towards a student and teacher friendly computer-based language program.

Touching upon some usual applications of computer assisted language

instruction, Kalbouss (1973) suggested an integrating approach that blends computer-

based exercises with conventional exercises in teaching Russian. He claimed that

computer-based programs could help teachers in supervising repetitive tasks such as

vocabulary drills and grammar exercises, by guiding students through these activities.

In addition, the researcher stated that computers could also help teachers in preparing

materials and assessing the learning outcome of students. Furthermore, the researcher

highlighted the possibility of decreasing the amount of time spent by learners on trying

to find words in dictionaries by listing the target vocabulary items of a text in a

consecutive-cumulative order.

Clausing and Wood (1974) argued that students needed to internalize certain

grammar rules and vocabulary items, however, this internalization could only be

carried out by students themselves. The researchers made use of computers in

providing grammar and vocabulary explanations to students rather than teaching

students grammar and vocabulary in a traditional classroom. It was found that the

students receiving instruction via computers performed better or at the same level as

the students than students who received instruction in the classroom.

One of the earliest studies on CALL is by Atkinson (1972), who conducted a

study on computer-based learning of second language vocabulary items and proposed

four optimization strategies for the improvement of second language vocabulary

learning. By collecting data from 120 students who were randomly assigned to four

different groups, the researchers found that the strategy that took the difficulty of items

into consideration resulted in the highest likelihood of giving a correct answer while

random distribution of items led to the lowest performance. The strategy that gave the

students the opportunity to order the items themselves had the second highest potential

correct answer ratio whereas the strategy that presumed equal difficulty among the

items had a slightly lower potential correct answer outcome than the student-centered

one.

With the rise of communicative language learning and teaching, behavioristic

CALL started to lose its prominence to communicative CALL towards the 1980s.

Underwood (1984) defined the assumptions of communicative CALL as focusing on

using forms rather than the forms themselves, providing implicit grammar instead of

explicit grammar, creating authentic utterances as opposed to prefabricated ones,

considering communicative competence more than structural accuracy, guiding

students by giving clues rather than telling that they are wrong, regarding the

achievement of a task as a sufficient reward in contrast with giving compliments,

providing authentic responses to the students rather than pretended ones, utilizing the

target language rather than the native language of students, allowing for flexible

responses rather than fixed answers, providing opportunities for the discovery of the

topic instead of a strict leading, allowing for natural communication between students

in addition to the communication between students and computers, doing more than

what an average textbook can do as opposed to just being an electronic copy of a

textbook, and being enjoyable (pp. 52-54).

In the 1980s, which may be regarded as a transition period from behaviorist

CALL to communicative CALL, some research studies involved both behaviorist and

communicative elements. In their study, Chapelle and Jamieson (1986) examined the

efficiency of CALL, through PLATO, in the acquisition of English by collecting data

from Arabic and Spanish students of English as a second language by analyzing

student factors and cognitive/affective factors in addition to the English proficiency

development of the participants. The researchers calculated the amount of time

students spent on using PLATO via the system and the attitudes of the students towards

using CALL through a questionnaire. Additionally, the field dependence and

independence, ambiguity tolerance, motivational intensity, and English class anxiety

of the students were assessed via tests and scales. Finally, the researchers evaluated

the proficiency levels of the participants through TOEFL and a communicative

competence test at the beginning and at the end of the semester. The findings indicated

that the utilization of CALL and the amount of time spent on CALL was not a

significant predictor of target language proficiency development when

cognitive/affective factors were taken into consideration. It was also found that the use

of CALL might be useful for some students and not for some others based on their

cognitive/affective traits. Therefore, it was concluded that several factors need to be

considered while analyzing the effectiveness of CALL in acquiring a target language,

and the characteristics of students should be taken into account in order to match

students with appropriate instruction types.

Ng and Olivier (1987) conducted a study to investigate the areas of language

learning that computers can help develop, the roles of computers in language learning,

and possible positive ways of incorporating the use of computers in lessons. The

researchers gathered data by collecting information from articles on CALL, and by

conducting a questionnaire with people in CALL projects. The researchers suggested

grounding CALL materials on a theoretical basis of language learning, increasing

opportunities for practice through activities such as drills and exercises, discovering a

variety of strategies and roles such as the use of simulations to enhance group learning

and authentic use of language, and integrating CALL materials into the classroom,

curriculum, other computerized materials and non-computerized materials, and the

language program to increase the effectiveness to increase the effectiveness of CALL.

In her study, Van der Linden (1993) pointed out two different approaches to

CALL. Some designers of educational software were creating sophisticated computer

programs with open-ended characters that provide learners a substantial amount of

freedom to make use of authentic environments to foster language learning. Other

designers were creating traditional CALL software that were focusing on traditional

drills and practice techniques which required learners to study within a restricted

framework by concentrating on the correct use of vocabulary and grammar by using

feedback. The researcher conducted the study to investigate the effectiveness of

feedback in CALL by collecting data from learners using a CALL program for French

grammar via log files and interviews. The findings indicated two main approaches to

feedback, optimal use of feedback in which students receive a significant amount of

feedback and drill-like use of feedback in which students seemingly ignored the

feedback provided. The optimal strategy resulted in better retention compared to the

drill-like strategy. The researcher also concluded that more concise and precise

feedback was preferred by learners in comparison with longer feedback.

1990s marked the beginning of a period which was characterized by integrative

approaches to CALL with the increasing use of hypermedia and multimedia.

Warschauer (1996) states that multimedia, which also entails hypermedia, provides

resources that are connected together, which provides students to utilize them on their

own easily. Additionally, Warschauer argues that hypermedia offers several benefits

for language learning such as creating a more authentic environment in which sight

and hearing senses are used in a real-like setting, integration of target language skills

so that they can be used together, fostering learner autonomy by giving them more

control over their own learning process, and putting the primary emphasis on content.

One example to the use of hypermedia in language learning can be the study of

Liu and Reed (1995), who undertook a research study to inquire into the effects of

using hypermedia in learning English. The researchers collected data from 63 students

from different countries through a vocabulary achievement test, computer anxiety

questionnaire, and a computer attitude scale before and after a language learning

period of four weeks via hypermedia resources. The results of the study demonstrated

that the vocabulary achievement scores of the participants increased significantly from

the pre-test to the post-test, and the students increased their skills in using target words

correctly. The findings further revealed that the computer anxiety of the participants

decreased and their attitudes towards using a computer became significantly more

positive. Finally, the results indicated that learning styles of the participants did not

have a significant influence on the achievement scores of the participants.

Similar studies were conducted on the use of multimedia in language learning,

as well. For example, Chun and Plass (1996) conducted a research study to investigate

the effectiveness multimedia tools in acquiring foreign language vocabulary items.

The researchers used several annotation techniques for teaching and testing vocabulary

items such as using pictures and text, videos and text, and only text. The findings of

the study revealed that annotating vocabulary items with text and pictures resulted in

a significantly greater outcome compared to using video and text, and only text. The

researchers highlighted the importance of testing students according to what is taught.

Therefore, they concluded that testing of students should also include multimedia

components rather than solely involving text-based questions, considering the fact that

the vocabulary items were taught to students through texts, pictures, and videos,

In another study, Plass (1998) probed into the existing approaches to

developing a user interface for multimedia software in language learning with their

advantages and disadvantages, and stated that the existing approaches were either very

practical due to not being founded on learning theories, or they were excessively

complicated to be utilized. Incorporating linguistic and pragmatic capabilities, the

researcher came up with a hybrid model for developing an interface for foreign

language multimedia software, which connects cognitive and engineering methods to

create a language learning tool that provides more autonomy for users. In addition to

the design of user interface in language learning software, the model also provides a

basis for the evaluation of similar software.

Considering the studies conducted in the 20

century, it can be stated that 20

century CALL mostly involved the use of materials specifically designed for language

learning in school settings. On the other hand, 21

century CALL is characterized by

the incorporation of portable and non-portable computing devices into everyday life

(Beatty, 2010). Computers and mobile phones have become more prevalent than ever,

and access to the Internet has increased dramatically during the last two decades. In

addition to instructional software, authentic materials such as social networks, movies,

TV series, and computer games started to be used more commonly for learning

languages and developing language skills. Therefore, building upon the previous

studies conducted until the end of the 20

century, 21

century CALL researchers

tended to investigate the effects of using online tools in computers and mobile phones

on learning languages.

In an effort to find out about the motivation and attitudes of learners towards

learning foreign languages (Spanish and French) via online courses, Ushida (2005)

implemented a mixed-methods study. The researcher collected data from students,

teachers, and learning assistants through questionnaires, observations, and interviews.

Findings of the study indicated that students were anxious about having an online

course at the start, but they showed positive attitudes in the online course. The findings

further demonstrated that online learning provided several advantages for learners

such as adjusting the pace of the course according to their own learning progress.

However, some students who could not manage their learning reasonably were not

able to benefit from these opportunities. Additionally, it was found that teachers had a

crucial impact on the motivation and attitudes of learners with regard to online learning

by adjusting the learning environment, making decisions, designing and executing

activities, and providing instructions.

With the rise of mobile computing devices such as smart phones and tablets,

which can carry out many of the tasks conducted by computers, the use of mobile

devices emerged as an important field of inquiry in CALL. In their meta-analysis, Sung

et al. (2015) analyzed 44 empirical studies conducted on the use of mobile devices in

language education. The results indicated that the majority of the participants in the

studies who used mobile devices to improve their language knowledge and skills

performed better than the participants who did not. Additionally, it was revealed that

the short-term and long-term use of MALL in different settings provided a variety of

creative activities and resulted in an increased language learning outcome for both

children and adults. On the other hand, the findings also indicated potential risks such

as a lack of in-depth interaction and limited collaboration.

Another point of inquiry that started to receive more research interest was the

use of computer games for learning and teaching languages in the 21st century. Serious

games, which basically refer to games that were designed for educational purposes,

were the main area of interest for the use of language learning and teaching in

computer-based environments. Starting with the 21

century, the interest in using

commercial games, which are developed for entertainment purposes, in learning and

teaching English has increased. The main motives behind these have been authentic

exposure to language in challenging and interesting environments, and opportunities

of being involved in meaningful communication in the target language in these games.

In his meta-analysis, Peterson (2010) reviewed studies the studies of Von Der Emde

et al. (2001), Coleman (2002), Toyoda and Harrison (2002), Kötter (2003), Surface,

Dierdorff, and Watson (2007), Ranalli (2008), and Thorne (2008), which were

conducted to explore the utilization of computer games and simulations in learning

and teaching languages. Taking the findings of the studies into consideration, Peterson

stated that computer games and simulations provide several advantages for language

learners such as increased exposure to the target language, enhanced motivation,

enhanced knowledge in the target language vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation,

practicing all target language skills, doing more oral and written practice, higher rates

of participation in communicative activities, receiving simultaneous feedback, and

improving inter-cultural knowledge and skills.

2.2. Commercial Computer Games and Learning Target Language

Vocabulary

The term vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning may involve different

definitions and scopes in the literature. According to Hatch and Brown (1995), learning

new vocabulary entails having access to sources, possessing a clear understanding of

what words imply, learning their meanings, creating associations in the brain between

form and meaning, and utilizing vocabulary items. Vocabulary learning, according to

Nation (2001), comprises comprehending a word's spoken and written forms, word

parts, meanings, concepts, relationships, and grammatical functions as well as

collocations and usage restrictions. Vocabulary learning has been the focus of various

studies in the literature on computer games with these components of vocabulary

knowledge and vocabulary learning as well as some other components specifically

taken into consideration in certain research papers.

Although studies on the effectiveness of commercial computer games in

learning and teaching target vocabulary items became prevalent in the 21

century, the

use of commercial computer games in learning target language vocabulary items goes

as far back as the 1980s. In his study, Palmberg (1988) investigated the effects of using

a commercial computer game, Pirate Cove, on the English vocabulary learning of

Swedish-speaking children. The vocabulary items encountered in the game were

targeted to be taught to the participants. Initially, the participants were expected to be

exposed to learn the vocabulary items during the game with the help of the researcher.

One month later, they were asked to provide explanations for the target vocabulary

items while playing the game. After another month, they took a vocabulary test in

which they were required to provide the translations of the target English words in

Swedish. The results indicated that the participants displayed a good performance in

learning and retaining the vocabulary items in the first two sessions, and they were

able to answer the majority of the target vocabulary items in the vocabulary test in the

final session. The study was one of the earliest indicators of vocabulary knowledge

development through commercial computer games.

Thanks to the realistic content they offer from instances in daily life, simulation

games have been one of the most researched genres in computer games and vocabulary

learning. In his paper, Purushotma (2005) probed into the use of a commercial

simulation game The Sims in exposure to target language vocabulary items by

combining game-based learning opportunities with other forms of computer-based

applications. He stated that learners are bored with textbooks and homework, and they

seek to be involved in more entertaining ways of learning a language outside the

classroom, and proposed The Sims as an opportunity for language learners to be

exposed to target vocabulary items especially with adjustments to the original game

such as adding and using an in-game translation tool. The researcher argued that the

game provided language learners an opportunity for incidental learning in a relevant

and meaningful context with the use of images and videos along with traditional forms

of text-based content, and concluded that game-based learning fulfilled the criteria of

learner involvement in incidental learning by incorporating need, search and

evaluation highlighted in the study by Laufer and Hulstijn (2001). This study was only

one of many to come with regard to the research interest in the computer game The

Sims, which would eventually become one of the most investigated computer games

in terms of its use in language learning.

A number of additional studies on the use of the popular computer game The

Sims can be found in the literature. For example, in an empirical study, Miller and

Hegelheimer (2006) investigated the use of The Sims in the teaching of the target

vocabulary items, which were identified through an analysis of in-game words in terms

of lexical frequency, in a pre-test post-test design. In addition, the researchers used a

survey and a questionnaire to identify the effectiveness of the supplementary activities

of vocabulary, grammar and culture. The findings of the tests indicated that there was

a significant increase in vocabulary scores of the participants from the pre-test to the

post-test. The survey and questionnaire results indicated that all the supplementary

activities were mostly seen as helpful by learners, with the vocabulary activities

regarded as the most beneficial and the grammar activities were considered the least

among the three. In a similar study, Ranalli (2008) probed into the enhancement of

The Sims pedagogically to be used for vocabulary learning of university level ESL

learners. The researcher collected data through weekly quizzes, a pre-test post-test

design, and pre-project and post-project surveys with open-ended questions. The

quantitative findings uncovered a significant improvement of target vocabulary

knowledge of the participants from the pre-test and the post-test, and a significant

increase in the weekly quiz scores of the participants with the use of supplementary

materials. The qualitative findings revealed mostly positive attitudes of learners

towards the use of the game in learning target language vocabulary items. Both Miller

and Hegelheimer, and Ranalli outlined the potential of commercial simulation game

The Sims in the acquisition of target language vocabulary items in a meaningful and

inclusive environment. These studies further consolidated the earlier empirical

findings related to the benefits of The Sims in language learning, specifically in terms

of vocabulary.

In a more up-to-date study on the use of simulation games for the development

of target language vocabulary, Bakar and Nosratirad (2013) scrutinized the potential

of The Sims 3 in sustaining vocabulary knowledge through observations, interviews, a

checklist, a pre-test post-test design and vocabulary lists. The findings indicated that

gaming sessions provided the participants to learn five to seven words on average in

each session and between 100-130 words overall via learning strategies such as

guessing the meaning, asking people nearby, asking friends, using a dictionary and

using Google Translate to understand the meanings of unknown words. Overall, the

learners had a positive attitude towards learning vocabulary items and sustaining

vocabulary knowledge via the game. Based on the findings, the researcher especially

highlighted the role of computer games in creating opportunities for self-study and

independent learning of target language vocabulary. In addition, the researcher put a

specific emphasis on the importance of users to set their individual goals of learning

English according to their own needs for the proper progression of the process. With

a comprehensive use of data collection tools, the study provided valuable insights into

the use of simulation games in vocabulary learning.

A more recent study that utilized The Sims as part of target language vocabulary

learning was carried out by Noroozloo et al. (2015). Similar to most of the previous

studies on vocabulary learning through The Sims, this study also employed a pre-test

post-test design to evaluate the effectiveness of game-based incidental vocabulary

learning compared to traditional means of learning vocabulary. The study was

conducted with 60 Iranian learners of English who were divided into a comparison

group and an experiment group. The comparability of the participants was tested

through a vocabulary knowledge scale, which served as the pre-test. The test involved

40 target vocabulary items that were found in the coursebook of the students and the

game. Following the pre-test, both groups studied the target vocabulary items through

the book initially, but they differed in how they studied the items in the following

session. The comparison group received traditional teaching in the following session,

whereas the experiment group received a game-based vocabulary learning session via

The Sims. Following these sessions, the same vocabulary knowledge scale was

administered as the post-test scale with the participants to find out about differences

between the groups with regard to their familiarity with the target vocabulary items.

The findings of the study indicated that the participants in the experiment group

performed better than the comparison group on the post-test. The study specifically

highlighted the potential role of the presentation of the target words with visuals,

animated scenes and simulated characters in the game-based learning sessions for the

significant outcome of vocabulary learning in computer games.

In addition to the popularity of the life simulation game The Sims, other types

of simulation games have also been evaluated empirically with regard to their

effectiveness in target language vocabulary learning. For example, Franciosi et al.

(2016) investigated the short-term and long-term vocabulary learnings effects of a

farming simulation game 3rd World Farmer. The game requires players to simulate a

farming family in a fictional setting in Africa to carry out activities related to

agriculture and animal husbandry. The participants were 213 students taking EFL

courses at a university, who were divided into the control group and the experiment

group. The students in the experiment group studied a list of target vocabulary items

through the game and the vocabulary learning application Quizlet, whereas the

participants in the control group used solely Quizlet to study the target vocabulary

items. The researchers evaluated the effectiveness of each treatment through three

vocabulary quizzes that were administered in three different weeks during a semester

of 14 weeks. The findings of the study indicated that game-based learning treatment

did not result in a significant improvement in the short term, but the participants that

were subject to game-based learning along with the vocabulary learning application

outperformed the participants that only used the vocabulary learning application in the

long term. The study demonstrated an example to the use of a simple simulation game

in enhancing the long-term vocabulary knowledge of EFL learners.

A similar study that was published by Franciosi (2017) delved into the

vocabulary learning outcomes of another simulation game, Energy City, which is a

computer game that simulates the production and conversation of energy in urban

environments. One of the aims of the study was to investigate whether supporting

vocabulary studying via Quizlet with gaming sessions of Energy City would lead to a

significant outcome of vocabulary learning comparing to just using Quizlet lists. The

findings of the study uncovered that the students in the study group, who learned

vocabulary items through Quizlet lists and the computer game, displayed a

significantly higher learning outcome compared to the participants in the control

group, who only learned the target vocabulary items via Quizlet. The researcher

concluded at the end of the study that computer games possess a beneficial potential

for language learning and encouraged teachers to use computer games as part of their

lessons. The study demonstrates that, just like The Sims, other simulation games could

also be utilized for learning target language vocabulary.

Another popular genre that draws attention from researchers with regard to

learning target language vocabulary items is role-playing games, specifically

massively multiplayer online ones. An early study into the use of MMORPGs in

learning English was conducted by Rankin et al. (2006). The researchers investigated

the effectiveness of language learning in EverQuest II with ESL learners who played

the game for four hours in a period of four weeks during which they were exposed to

and communicated in English with in-game characters. The researchers evaluated the

effectiveness of the gaming period through language tests, questionnaires, and diaries.

In the analysis, it was found that all participants improved their vocabulary knowledge

significantly. However, the findings also indicated that learners with higher English

proficiency levels performed better inter terms of vocabulary and demonstrated higher

motivation and confidence with regard to interactions within the game compared to

learners with lower proficiency. The study demonstrates that although game-based

learning can be beneficial to all kinds of learners, the backgrounds of gaming learners

of English might have a significant impact on the effectiveness of game-based

language learning.

In a similar later study conducted by Rankin et al. (2009), one of the areas

scrutinized by the researchers was the role of EverQuest II in the vocabulary learning

of ESL learners. As part of the study, the researchers identified academic words at an

academic level that the participants encountered during their conversation with the

non-player characters (NPCs). The knowledge of the participants on these words were

assessed through a pre-test and post-test design before and after the participants played

the game to complete specific quests. One group of participants played the game

independently whereas the other group played it by being grouped with native English

speakers. Although both groups increased their scores on the post-test, there was a

significant difference between the groups in their post-test scores favoring the group

that played the game with native speakers. The researchers highlighted the potential

role of MMORPGs in the vocabulary knowledge development of ESL learners

especially with opportunities of interaction and communication with native English

speakers during the game-play sessions. This study was specifically important owing

to its emphasis on the theoretical rationale for the use of computer games in language

learning and it inspired many other research papers on the use of MMORPGs in

language learning and teaching.

Investigating the effects of RPGs and adventure games on the development of

target language vocabulary, Cornillie et al. (2010) proposed an adaptive method for

providing an opportunity for gaming English learners to concentrate on formal

language use if they will. The researchers aimed to do this by providing additional

options to the conversations between the player and the NPCs in the game by adding

options for further clarification of a word that are uttered by the NPCs during the game

if there is a need. They suggested that such an approach to learning vocabulary through

adventure games and RPGs would result in negotiation of meaning between the player

and the NPCs, which would in turn lead to acquisition of vocabulary items in the

process of completing in-game tasks. Furthermore, they stated that difficult vocabulary

items can be pointed out in NPC responses to increase the likelihood of noticing by

the learners. The researchers stated that the direct assessment of learners’ vocabulary

knowledge during the game could be quite challenging due to the limited interaction

opportunities with the NPCs through a text-based system, however, the system can

still predict the vocabulary level of a participant via the meaning requests of the

learners in the system and provide relevant language learning activities for the learners

according to their levels. They provided a good example of how games could be

integrated with additional features to increase the effectiveness of language learning.

In addition to these, the researchers also highlighted the fact that several RPGs involve

toolkits for creating modified versions of existing games and that these modification

tool can be useful for creating educational content for games that are already popular

among learners.

In an effort to find out about the effects of an MMORPG on the incidental

vocabulary development of 52 EFL learners, Huang and Yang (2014) conducted a

study by collecting data through a questionnaire on the game experiences of the

participants and a pre-test post-test design via two vocabulary knowledge tests. The

participants, who were divided into three groups as low, medium and high gaming

experience, had an opportunity to learn vocabulary items through in-game dialogues

and flashcards attached under each dialogue in a gaming session of 80 minutes. The

findings of the study showed that participants with medium gaming experience

benefited the most from the in-game dialogues and the effectiveness of the flashcards

with regard to learning vocabulary was affected the most by academic English levels

of the participants except in the case of the participants with high gaming experience.

The study indicated that the effectiveness of MMORPGs in incidental vocabulary

acquisition of learners can be significantly influenced by the gaming experiences of

participants and their levels of academic English. It uncovered the importance of

taking several factors into consideration while evaluating the effectiveness of a

commercial computer game in language learning and teaching.

World of Warcraft is among the MMORPGs which have been frequently

examined with regard to its role in contributing to the vocabulary knowledge of

language learners. In an effort to find out about the vocabulary learning strategies of

gamers English as a second language speakers, Bytheway (2015) studied the

vocabulary learning strategies used by six expert gamers in a five-hour gaming session

in World of Warcraft. In addition to the observation, interviews were carried out with

participants to learn about the opinions of the participants towards vocabulary learning

in the game. 15 vocabulary learning strategies were identified by the researcher. These

are “reading in-game information/pop-ups looking up words in dictionaries/Google

noticing frequency/ repetition of words requesting/giving explanations equating

image/action to word recognizing knowledge gap receiving/giving feedback noticing

in other contexts guessing from context using word to learn word use observing players

selecting words for attention adding to existing knowledge” (p. 514). The researcher

emphasized the importance of increased motivation in MMORPG-based language

learning, which eliminates the need for the implementation of motivational learning

strategies. In addition, the researcher also underlined the need for vocabulary learning

and the development of vocabulary learning strategies created inherently by

MMORPGs, which leads to autonomous learning.

A more recent study by Rahman and Angraeni (2020) probed into the use of an

RPG in teaching target language vocabulary through a pre-test post-test design, a

questionnaire, and an interview. The aim of the researchers was to find out whether a

series of vocabulary teaching sessions through an RPG would result in a better

vocabulary learning outcome than teaching vocabulary through traditional classroom

activity sessions. The findings of the study indicated that the students who learned the

vocabulary items via the RPG had a significantly higher learning outcome than the

students who learned the vocabulary items through in-class activities. In addition, the

findings further indicated that most of the students found learning vocabulary items

through the RPG interesting. Based on the findings of the study, the researchers

pointed out the advantages of using RPGs in a language learning classroom

considering their entertaining and meaningful nature, and highlighted the possibility

of bringing native speakers of the target language to the classroom via an RPG. They

also emphasized that teachers have positive opinions towards using an RPG in the

classroom since they can provide assistance in motivating learners and increasing their

long-term vocabulary knowledge through the guidance of a language teacher as a

planner. It is important here to understand the role of the teacher in increasing the

gaming experience for the students while playing computer games not only by

integrating them into the learning and teaching process, but acting as a guide for

learners to improve the learning outcome during gaming sessions.

Along with commercial games, there have been some studies on games with a

teaching focus which had similar implications for computer games and language

learning, as well. For example, trying to find out whether an adventure RPG called

Academic Adventure with additional tools for lexical support would lead to a better

vocabulary learning outcome than the same game without lexical support tools, Chen

et al. (2020) carried out an experimental study with college-level English learners. One

group of the participants took part in the study as the control group by just playing the

computer game and the other group of the participants took part as the experiment

group by playing the game with additional lexical support tools. The researchers found

that both groups increased their vocabulary knowledge, but the participants in the

experiment group displayed a significantly higher vocabulary learning outcome than

the control group. In addition, a questionnaire conducted with the participants revealed

that the participants developed positive attitudes towards learning vocabulary items

through the RPG. The study suggested game-developers to include vocabulary

learning and practice tools to provide learners more opportunities for improving their

target vocabulary knowledge via playing computer games. This suggestion may be

critical for commercial computer game developers in offering assistance to non-native

speakers of English to improve their gaming experience and providing them chances

of learning target language vocabulary items.

Another genre that has been subject to computer games and target language

vocabulary learning is the adventure genre. Vahdat and Behbahani (2013) delved into

the use of an adventure game Runaway: A Road Adventure in learning target

vocabulary items. The researchers investigated the effectiveness of vocabulary

learning with a control group that studied vocabulary through traditional classes and

an experiment group that studied vocabulary through the game. The participants were

subject to a paper-based TOEFL test for initial proficiency determination, and they

were subject to an achievement test for the identification of vocabulary learning at the

end of the treatment. In addition, the participants in the experiment filled a

questionnaire to share their opinions about vocabulary learning via the game. The

findings of the study revealed that the participants in the experiment group

significantly outperformed the participants in the control group. This indicated a better

vocabulary learning outcome in the computer game setting than in the traditional

setting. The outcome of the questionnaire indicated that the majority of the participants

in the experiment group were satisfied with the learning of vocabulary in the game.

The researchers underlined the benefits of learning vocabulary through video games

both in the classroom and outside the classroom. Teachers were encouraged in the

study to use games for vocabulary learning and students were advised to improve their

autonomous vocabulary learning through games such as the one in the study.

A more recent investigation of adventure games with regard to their use in

learning target language vocabulary was carried out by Enayat and Haghighatpasand

(2019), who investigated the use of a popular adventure game The Secret of the

Monkey Island – Special Edition in vocabulary recall of EFL students. To that end, the

researchers collected data from 30 undergraduate learners of English who were divided

into two groups as the experiment group and the control group. For the study, the

researchers created a list of the most frequent target words in the game, and they

identified 35 words that were unknown to all the participants in the study. The

participants in the control group studied the target vocabulary items through four

teaching sessions of 90 minutes followed by 45 minutes of vocabulary exercises

whereas the participants in the experiment group played the first half of the game in

sessions of 80 minutes followed by 40 minutes of vocabulary exercises for five

sessions. Following this, the participants in both groups were subject to two post-tests,

one immediately following the end of the sessions, and another after a ten-day period.

The findings of the study demonstrated that the participants in the experiment group

outperformed the participants in the control group in both post-tests. In addition to the

post-tests, the researchers also conducted a questionnaire and an interview with the

participants in the experiment group to learn about their game-based vocabulary

learning experience in further detail. The findings of the questionnaire showed that the

participants were significantly in agreement with positive statements about game-

based learning while they were in significant disagreement with negative statements.

On the other hand, the interviews revealed the positive attitudes of the participants

towards game-based learning thanks to the features of problem-solving,

meaningfulness, purposeful storyline and creative design, whereas some participants

noted certain disadvantages of low graphic quality and tedious plot.

An example from the investigation of action genre in computer games and

vocabulary learning is the study by DeHaan et al. (2010), who investigated the learning

of vocabulary in PaRappa the Rapper II, a music-based action game. The researchers

implemented an experimental design using a pre-test and a post-test along with a

cognitive load measure and a questionnaire to find out whether the interactivity in the

game had a significant impact on noticing and learning target vocabulary items. The

comparison of the pre-test scores and post-test scores of the participants in the control

group, who only watched game-play sessions (watchers), and the participants in the

experiment group, who actually played the game itself (players), revealed that both

groups recalled the target vocabulary items, but the experiment group recalled the

vocabulary items significantly less than the control group. The result was attributed to

the extraneous cognitive load that stemmed from the interactivity of the game since

the players regarded the language in the game as more difficult than the watchers. A

comparably less extraneous cognitive load due to not playing the game was suggested

as the reason why the watchers could spare more attention to vocabulary items

compared to the players, therefore performing significantly better in the post-test.

There were also differences between the groups as to the extent they enjoyed the

sessions and as to whether they would use the game for learning English. Whereas the

players enjoyed the game more than the watchers, the watchers were more willing to

use the game for learning English according to the findings of the questionnaire.

Another example to the use of action games in target language vocabulary

learning is the study of Urun et al. (2017), who probed into the effectiveness of using

a tactical shooter game, Tom Clancy’s Ghost Recon: Future Soldier, in learning

English vocabulary. The researchers conducted the study with 52 Turkish learners of

English at tertiary level, who were divided into a treatment group and a control group.

The participants in the treatment group were involved in game-based learning in a

Kinect-based gaming scenario, which enables players to use their motions to perform

certain moves in the game through a motion controller, whereas the participants in the

control group kept studying in a traditional learning environment. The comparability

of the participants and the effectiveness of each mode of learning were tested through

a pre-test post-test design, which were administered as achievement tests. Following

the quantitative analysis, a semi-structured interview was carried out with certain

participants to learn about the opinions of the participants regarding vocabulary

learning through Kinect-based games. The findings of the study revealed that the

participants in the treatment group outperformed the participants in the control group

on the post-test. The qualitative findings indicated that game-based learning was

regarded as beneficial by the participants in terms of improving language knowledge

and skills and increased motivation. The study provides unique implications for

computer games and language learning as it focuses on motion-based gaming instead

of traditional gaming.

Some strategy games have been a focus of research on computer games and

target language vocabulary learning, as well. In their study, Ebrahimzadeh and Alavi

(2017) delved into the motivation levels of EFL students learning English vocabulary

items through Warcraft III: Frozen Throne. The participants of the study were divided

into three groups, those who read the story of the game, those who played the game

itself, and those who watched a classmate play the game. The analysis of a learning

motivation scale which was implemented at the beginning and at the end of the

treatments, and the evaluation of field notes revealed that the overall motivation of

learners in all groups displayed a significant increase at the end of all treatments. Taken

separately, those who watched the game demonstrated a significantly higher

motivation level than those who only read the story of the game. There was no

significant difference between those who played the game and the other groups. Based

on the findings, the researchers underlined the potential of digital video games in

increasing the motivation levels of foreign language learners.

In creating an overall synthesis of the findings of several research studies into

the use of several types of computer games including shooter, simulation, sport,

adventure, and role-playing games, one of the focus points of Yudintseva (2015) was

to evaluate research findings with regard to learning vocabulary through computer

games. Based on the findings in the literature, the researcher found that both serious

and commercial games are used for learning vocabulary items, and stated that

MMORPGs, simulation games and adventure games were specifically beneficial for

the vocabulary acquisition of learners. The researcher further identified a probable

advantage in vocabulary learning favoring male students since they prefer first-person

shooter, role-playing and adventure games more than female students who mostly

prefer single-player simulation games. However, the researcher pointed out a potential

limitation of some computer games in terms of including genre-specific terminology

instead of common vocabulary items. In addition, the researcher further highlighted

that commercial games might better serve the needs of advanced language learners due

in part to including difficult vocabulary items. It was concluded at the end of the study

that the effectiveness of a computer game on vocabulary learning may depend on the

gender, proficiency, goals and gaming experiences of learners. The findings of this

study are crucial as it helps us understand that the language learning experience of

gamers from various backgrounds playing computer games of diverse genres can differ

significantly.

2.3. Commercial Computer Games and Learning Target Language

Grammar

Although grammar learning has not been as widely focused on as vocabulary

learning in computer games and language learning, it has still been researched in

several research studies in the area. Acquiring the abilities to process and to produce

the target language forms more accurately is how Ishikawa (2018) describes grammar

learning. With scopes similar to this definition or different as in some other studies,

grammar learning in computer games has been an interest among some researchers

who have conducted studies to find out whether computer games can provide

meaningful environments for learning target language grammar.

Development of target language grammar knowledge has been another point

of interest in commercial computer games and language learning in spite of the fact

that it has not received as much attention as vocabulary learning. Just like vocabulary

learning, one of the genres that has been prevalently investigated in this regard is

simulation games. In addition to the evaluation of The Sims in terms of target

vocabulary knowledge, Miller and Hegelheimer (2006) also included grammar

features such as descriptions and exercises in their study. To do this, the researchers

first identified the most frequently occurring grammar structures related to the game.

Grammar explanation links that provided a brief explanation and examples of a target

grammar structure were included in the study along with grammar exercises. The

grammar knowledge of the participants was assessed via a pre-test post-test design and

weekly quizzes, just like their vocabulary knowledge. The quantitative findings of the

study indicated that there was an increase in the grammar knowledge of the

participants, and it was found that the participants who took part in explicit vocabulary

and grammar activities prior to the gaming sessions benefitted more from those who

took part in these activities optionally and from those who did not. Moreover, it was

uncovered that the majority students had a positive attitude towards the benefits of the

supplementary materials with regard to learning grammar. However, the findings also

revealed that grammar materials were regarded as less effective and were used less

frequently compared to the vocabulary materials in the study. The findings of this

study might serve a critical role in understanding why grammar receives less attention

from researchers who are interested in the use of commercial computer games in target

language learning and teaching.

In addition to empirical studies, there has also been conceptual studies dwelling

on the possibility of the improvement of target language grammar knowledge. In their

paper, Thorne and Reinhardt (2008) proposed a pedagogical model called bridging

activities that could help advanced foreign language learners improve their proficiency

in target language grammar along with other areas of language development. The

model aims at increasing the awareness of learners with regard to the usages of

grammar and vocabulary structures in a text and understand how these usages make

up different meanings in situational and cultural contexts through technological tools

such as chats, blogs, wikis, and games. Instead of a replacement of traditional text-

based grammar sources, the model was designed to act as a counterbalance for

prescriptive language learning materials that are often far from the usages in real-life.

By combining the theoretical framework of the field of foreign language education

with the resources available in technological environments, the model aims to achieve

a mediated language awareness, which could in turn improve the foreign language

performance of the studies in many areas including grammatical awareness. Although

the paper did not provide an empirical evaluation of the model, it put forward a

valuable guideline for researchers and practitioners interested in areas of technology

and language learning including computer games and language learning to build upon

by drawing on the available theoretical background of technology and language

learning.

Opportunities for learning grammar through computer games have also been

highlighted by Turgut and İrgin (2009), who carried out a qualitative empirical study

with primary school students playing computer games at internet cafes through

observations and semi-structured interviews. The aim of the study was to find out

about the language learning experiences of the students while playing these computer

games. The games played by the participants included two RPGs (Knight Online and

Grand Theft Auto: Vice City), a shooter game (Counter-Strike), a real-time strategy

game (Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos) and a sports game (FIFA 08). The findings of the

study indicated that continuous exposure to target language vocabulary and grammar

contributed to the language learning process of the participants by enabling them to

decode what is unknown in target texts through what is already known. The researchers

noted that despite being criticized for potentially causing some unwanted behaviors

for children, computer games had the potential to facilitate language learning. They

specifically pointed out the importance of finding a balance between being engaged in

physical activity and playing computer games in an effort to avoid potential harm. The

unique feature of this study was that it was conducted by observing gamers and having

interviews with them in an authentic gaming environment through in-depth qualitative

analysis. We learn from this study that computer games can be beneficial to language

learners even without being used in classroom environments by incorporating specific

learning activities with them.

Jensen (2017) investigated the extramural exposure of English learners at

primary school level through computer games along with some other activities such as

listening to music, reading books, and watching television. A picture vocabulary test

was used to evaluate the vocabulary gains of the participants, and a language diary was

utilized to find out about the extramural English activities that the participants were

involved in. The findings revealed an average gaming time of 235.1 minutes for boys

and 46.8 minutes for girls. The participants in the study mostly preferred to play

computer games with both written and oral input in English, whereas some also played

games with only written input. Most of the participants did not prefer to play games in

their native language. Both game types had a significant impact on the vocabulary

learning of the participants. Jensen pointed out the importance of the need to

understand the input provided by the game in order for the sustenance of entertainment

during gaming, referring to the usage-based theories of language acquisition.

In her paper, Constantinescu (2012) dwelled on the potential role of computer

games in learning, teaching, and practicing English grammar by taking theoretical

approaches into consideration, describing points to note while designing game-based

activities, comparing educational and non-educational computer games, and stating

the advantages and disadvantages of integrating computer games into learning

activities in the classroom. With regard to theoretical approaches, the researcher points

out that students playing computer games are exposed to grammar inductively similar

with some major approaches to language teaching such as direct approach, audio-

lingual method, and communicative approach. Seven points of consideration were

highlighted by the researcher during the process of choosing a game to integrate into

the lesson: the goal of the game, the focus on the use of language, appropriacy of the

game content, practicality of the game, the aptness of the game for the levels of

learners, the interests of learners, and the length of the game. In the paper, the

researcher also compared the use of educational and commercial computer games.

Whereas educational games were suggested to be directly integrated into lessons, it

was indicated that commercial computer games could be integrated into the class

indirectly through activities such as writing a review or a story of a game, describing

the characters in a game, and recommending a game to a friend. Finally, the researcher

stated the researcher stated that advantages and disadvantages of using computer

games in English lessons. The advantages include the role of computer games in being

exposed to English and getting more familiar with it, boosting motivation, improving

critical thinking and problem solving, promoting collaborative learning, and the

disadvantages involve the need for computer skills, a potential stray from both learning

and having fun to only having fun, management problems and the risks of excessive

use. The paper provides valuable practical suggestions for teachers who are interested

in integrating computer games into their lessons.

In an overall evaluation of studies on digital games and vocabulary learning,

Zou et al. (2021) reviewed 21 articles that dwelled on vocabulary learning in different

types of computer games including simulation games, role-playing games, motion-

sensing games, adventures games, and serious games. The analysis of the articles

indicated that there has been considerable attention to the use of digital games in

language learning, and digital games hold a significant potential for the learning of

target language vocabulary items, along with other benefits in other areas such as

reading, listening, and pronunciation. The implications in the studies suggest that in-

game interactions, embedded multimedia content, and over-specified vocabulary

information are particularly beneficial for vocabulary learning in digital games.

Another important finding from the articles is that gamers have a high level of

motivation, engagement, and interaction, and a lower level of stress while learning and

practicing target language knowledge and skills in digital games.

2.4. Commercial Computer Games and Improving Target Language

Skills

Target language skills practice and improvement in computer games has been

a topic of research for several years. However, it can be stated that this focus has been

relatively overshadowed by vocabulary learning up until recent years. The

development of four primary language abilities (reading, listening, writing, and

speaking) in computer games have become more popular with researchers in recent

years. Tollefson (1999) describes language practice as the way a speaker uses a

language when given the choice to choose a language from a selection of languages.

Language skills are described as a speaker's ability to use the language in reading,

listening, writing and speaking by Elizawati et al. (2018) while Kholiq (2020) defines

language skills as a learner's ability to use their language competencies. The practicing

and development of target language skills have been another area of research in

computer games and language learning with scopes similar to these definitions and

some other scopes.

The development of target language skills has been one of the core points of

computer games and language learning research. In an early paper on the improvement

of target language skills through computer games, Taylor (1990) dwelled on the

potential use of the commercial computer game Sim City, a city-building simulation

game, as language learning material. In the paper, a number of activities integrating a

computer game in lessons are provided. One example is having an urban development

group work project that would require students to conduct several activities such as

reading, interviewing, negotiating, and writing reports. What is even more interesting

in the article is the evaluation of the program with regard to its potential in providing

online interaction through telecommunication. In addition to the use of the game in the

class, the possibility of English learners playing the game outside the classroom with

native English speakers were also highlighted in the paper. The projections in the paper

are really valuable considering the fact that it not only proposes ways of integrating

the game into the classroom, but also focuses on the use of the computer game by

learners with native speakers of the target language outside the classroom. Taking a

look at the literature nowadays, we can say that the projections of Taylor with regard

to the use of a computer game to improve English language skills outside the classroom

with native English speakers has become a reality, specifically with the rise of

multiplayer online gaming. Nowadays, learners can easily communicate with speakers

of English online by reading and writing messages and listening to and speaking with

other players of the game from all over the world. This is a unique opportunity that

would otherwise be unavailable for many English learners living in countries where a

face-to-face interaction with the speaker of another language is unlikely in daily life.

In another study on the use of simulation games in language learning by

Simulation & Gaming journal, Carrier (1991) proposed a communicative and

cooperative approach to using simulation games in language teaching targeting

fluency. It involved potential uses of several simulations in language learning and

teaching such as the village-ruling simulation game Yellow River Kingdom. The

researcher put forward several phases to be followed for an effective implementation

of communication oriented cooperative learning through simulations. In phase one, he

focused on the development of a strategy by learners to decide what steps are to be

followed in the simulation by communicating with each other. In the second phase, it

is advised for students to either enter the decisions in the previous phase of the activity

into the computer and record the consequences via a keyboard or discuss the outcomes

of the previous decisions. In the third phase, the students are advised to have a

conversation on the pros and cons of their decisions and what could have been done

better or in a different way. Finally, a number of possible follow-up tasks were

proposed by the researcher including group activities such as asking each group to

write a report on their findings or individual activities like narrating what has been

done and what has been found. These phases were expected to increase language

learning outcome of simulations in lessons. Probably, the most important message of

the paper is that the effectiveness of the simulation significantly rests on what kind of

a methodology is adopted to integrate the simulation into the lesson. This message is

intended for in-class use of computer games in language classrooms, but it can be

applicable for out-of-class use of computer games by language learners, as well.

Similar to simulation games, adventure games were also evaluated with regard

to their contributions to the development of target language skills. One of the earliest

studies on this issue was conducted by Baltra (1990), who dwelled on the language

learning opportunities provided by both commercial and educational computer games

in a classroom environment. In the paper, Baltra stated that a number of computer

games available on home computers at the time were centered around activities that

required problem solving, planning, thinking and note taking. As a result of this, it was

argued in the paper that these games could provide learners chances to improve their

communicative fluency in both their native language and in a foreign language thanks

to some characteristics of language learning via computer games. These characteristics

are not focusing directly on language through the manipulation of vocabulary and

grammar items unlike conventional computer assisted language learning tools,

promotion of meaningful discovery thanks to the need for uncovering the game

features by learners themselves, the opportunity to interact with other players, and the

inclusion of target language skills (speaking through oral group interactions and

discussions, reading and listening to in-game texts, and writing in the form of follow-

up activities such as writing essays). The integration of fantasy and curiosity in

computer games, which facilitate learner motivation, and the challenging environment,

which is created by goal-oriented nature, receiving feedback, uncertain goal

attainment, hidden information, unpredictability, and randomness, were highlighted as

important elements that contribute to the entertaining nature of computer games. This

entertaining nature, in turn, increases the effectiveness of computer games in

promoting language learning. Thanks to their entertaining nature, computer games

boost the intrinsic motivation of learners and thus lead to effective language learning.

The researcher put this perspective effectively by stating “We all normally look

forward to doing activities that are fun for us. And we all label as work those activities

that we would not be doing if we had a choice” (p. 450). The paper called for a

thorough revision of gaming from an educational perspective. It effectively portrays

the need for the development of language fluency as well as accuracy and the role of

computer games in realizing this.

By evaluating the use of both sports simulations and adventure games, Jordan

(1992) proposed a number of ways through which computer games can be utilized for

the improvement of target language skills. One example in the article comes from a

suggestion by Higgins (1988), who proposed that gaming sessions can be integrated

with follow-up activities such as written or oral reports. The paper emphasizes that the

gaming session itself might not lead to a lot of practice, but the follow up activity can

result in an interesting and useful activity for language practice. When it comes to

adventure games, Jordan underlines that these games typically involve more reading

and writing than speaking, and thus, they are limited in terms of developing

communicative competence. That is why the paper highlights the best use for

adventure games as improving the reading skills of learners via extensive reading

practice. Computer self-access rooms are recommended as suitable environments to

conduct such activities.

Another adventure game that was evaluated with regard to its implications for

language learning is Bone. Chen and Yang (2011, 2013) investigated the role of the

game in language learning with 35 intermediate level EFL students through a written

report on in-game experiences and a survey following a gaming session after class.

The participants of the study regarded the game as beneficial in terms of developing

their language skills, enhancing their attitude towards language learning, and enjoying

themselves. The findings uncovered learning gains in the areas of reading and listening

along with vocabulary and other improvements. However, it also highlighted some

learning difficulties such as the fast pace of speaking, unfamiliarity with some

abbreviations and some concentration issues while playing the game. The captivating

and inclusive nature of the storyline and challenging quests were noted as critical

factors in the effectiveness of the game in terms of its contribution to language

learning. Based on the findings of the reports and the survey, the researchers concluded

that adventure games such as Bone could be used to improve the target language skills

of EFL learners.

Interactive fiction, which incorporates elements of adventure games, has also

been subject to research studies related to computer games and language learning. One

such study was conducted by Neville et al. (2009), who probed into the teaching of

German reading, vocabulary, and culture to students through interactive fiction. The

researchers used both quantitative and qualitative data to evaluate the language

learning outcomes and attitudes towards the modes of instruction with two different

studies in which students were divided into two groups: one group receiving

instruction through interactive fiction and the other receiving instruction through print-

based materials. In terms of quantitative data, the study did not report significant

findings, however, the interactive fiction group performed better at language tasks than

the print-based group although the confidence and the satisfaction levels of the

participants in the print-based group were higher than those in the interactive fiction

group. The qualitative findings indicated that fiction group participants in the first

study were less satisfied with learning through interactive fiction than the fiction group

participants in the second study, and this was attributed to an extra amount of time

provided to the participants to get familiar with the game. The print-based groups in

both studies were satisfied with the mode of instruction. One important outcome of the

study was that the print-based group in the study stated that they benefited from the

instruction more linguistically than culturally whereas the participants in the

interactive fiction group noted that they benefited from the instruction not only

linguistically but also culturally. This might be important with regard to the role of

digital games in providing learners an opportunity to learn a second language in a

contextually and culturally rich environment.

One other genre that has been a subject to computer games and language

learning is role-playing. An example to this can be the study of Sarı and Chen (2013),

who investigated the development and the use of English reading materials through

RPGs. The researchers aimed at finding out whether using computer games as a ways

of reading practice would lead to a significant improvement in the reading ability of

the students and reduce their anxiety. To this end, they employed a pre-test post-test

design along with classroom observation, teacher interviews and a teaching strategy

questionnaire. The pre-test post-test analysis uncovered that the use of the games

resulted in a significant improvement in the reading ability of the participants. The

teachers believed that the games also improved the concentration and the motivation

of learners. The points that were highlighted by the teachers as useful for increasing

student motivation and interest in RPGs involved animations, dialogues, and narration.

One problem reported by the teachers was that they had difficulty in the development

of the materials due to not having enough familiarity with the software. Nevertheless,

they agreed that RPGs could be a useful tool for the improvement of reading skill.

When it comes to role-playing games, the subgenre MMORPG is without

doubt the most dominant one in terms of being subject to research studies with regard

to computer games and language learning. In one of the most prominent studies in the

field, Rankin et al. (2009) investigated the target language skills development of

language learners in MMORPGs along with vocabulary learning. The researchers put

forward several opportunities for skills development in the MMORPG EverQuest II.

These include improvement in reading skill via in-game written social interactions,

reading and listening practice by listening to the NPCs, and development of

communicative and conversational skills through chat-based interactions with other

players. Although the main focus of the paper is vocabulary learning and the data

collection tools mainly targeted the outcome of vocabulary learning through in-game

interactions, the study provided valuable implications for target language skills

practice in computer games. The results of the study indicate a better target language

vocabulary outcome for players who played the game with other players who were

native English speakers instead of playing the game on their own independently. This

clearly shows the value of interacting with other players while playing an MMORPG

with regard to the acquisition of target language items. In addition, the fact that players

were required to read and often listen to the quests provided by NPCs in the MMORPG

was an indicator of meaningful reading and listening practice. Considering these

opportunities, MMORPGs can be expected to provide learners several chances to

improve their language skills, in addition to learning vocabulary items.

World of Warcraft is among the MMORPGs that were researched with regard

to their contributions to the development of communicative skills in a target language.

Newgarden and Zheng (2016) carried out a research study to find out about the

activities of language learning in World of Warcraft. Studying the in-game interactions

of four learners of English with each other, with native speakers of English, and with

the instructor of the English course, which was subject to the study, the researchers

found that the participants of the study acquired and practiced specific communicative

skills in the target language. The study highlights several important points about the

unique opportunities provided by such games in language learning. One of the points

underlined is that games provide learners who cannot travel to other countries to have

meaningful communication practice in the target language in a virtual immersive

environment. Another point is that the wide variety of communicative activities of the

participants from simple tasks to more complicated ones ranging from conversations

about in-game quests to daily issues can be associated with different CEFR speaking

descriptors in different level groups. A final point highlighted in the paper is that the

communicative activities within the game are creative, goal-oriented, sense-making,

and meaningful activities that contribute to the efficiency of language learning and

practice. The researchers pointed out the importance of investigating the MMORPG

environments in further detail in order to understand the elements of language learning

and practice more profoundly, and for a more effective blending of such games in

second language classes.

Another MMORPG that has been subject to game-based language learning is

Ragnarok Online. Reinders and Wattana (2015) investigated the outcomes of using

this game for language learning, specifically their willingness to communicate in

English. The researchers collected data from 30 English learners who were taking a

15-week language course, whose review sessions at the end of units were carried out

via completing a quest in the game, through questionnaires and semi structured

interviews to find out about their opinions regarding the gaming sessions. The findings

of the study revealed that game-based learning provided learners the opportunity to

practice English speaking by interacting with each other in an environment where they

were not afraid of making mistakes, and it decreased the language learning anxiety of

the participants. On the other hand, some participants were not happy with the

immediacy of interaction in the game due to experiencing tension while trying to

express themselves. Overall, the game-based learning environment was regarded as

motivating and relaxing by most of the participants, even by some of those who did

not find the game as enjoyable as the other participants.

Instead of focusing on the use of a single game, Kongmee et al. (2012) delved

into the use of four MMORPGs: GodsWar Online, Hello Kitty Online, Perfect World

International, and Asda Story, for learning a second language. The researchers were

specifically interested in whether the use of the MMORPGs would lead to a significant

outcome for learning English and what the experiences of the participants would be in

terms of using MMORPGs for learning and practicing English. The researchers

implemented a pre-test post-test design to find out about potential changes in the

vocabulary, grammar, and listening performances of the participants prior to and at the

end of the study, and they conducted interviews to find out about the opinions of the

participants regarding gaming and language learning. The study was focused on the

performances and the experiences two undergraduate student. The test scores indicated

that both participants increased their listening levels as well as their vocabulary from

the pre-test to the post-test. However, there was an increase in the grammar level of

only one of the participants at the end of the study. In the interviews, one of the students

reported having an easier time reading at the end of the study, as well. Although having

certain difficulties in gaming sessions such as getting used to the environments in

different games, both students mostly had positive attitudes towards learning English

and practicing their skills, and they reported benefiting from the interactions they

carried out with other players in the game.

In a recent study focusing on the effects of individual differences on language

learning in MMORPGs, Yang and Chen (2020) examined how the gaming experience

levels of learners influence their attitudes for language learning in an MMORPG. The

researchers developed an MMORPG-based learning environment (MELE) by

integrating learning materials into the MELE. The participants were divided into two

groups as the high gaming-experience learners and the low gaming-experience learners

with the help of a questionnaire prior to the beginning of the study. The researchers

collected the data through in-game logs and interviews. The findings of the study

indicated that the participants with high gaming experienced better attainment in the

game with regard to in-game achievements and socialization whereas the participants

with low gaming experience required more in-game assistance. On the other hand, the

results demonstrated that while the participants with low gaming experience paid

attention to the learning content in game sessions, the participants with high gaming

experience skipped it. Considering the profound level of engagement with the tasks in

both groups, the researchers concluded that the differences between the groups in

terms of the mode of engagement resulted from their gaming-experiences, which had

a significant influence on whether the players preferred to make this engagement with

in-game elements (in the case of high gaming experience learners) or by following the

route-maps and the task lists (in the case of low gaming experience learners).

Strategy games were also evaluated with regard to their role in the development

of target language skills. For example, Shahrokni et al. (2020) conducted a narrative

inquiry to find out about the second language socialization of an English learner in a

massively-multiplayer online strategy game Stronghold Kingdoms by collecting data

through records, an interview, and a focus group. The findings of the study indicated

that the participant took part in communicative group activities in an effort to realize

common in-game goals and strategies. These communicative activities involved both

written and audio chat conversations with other players who were in the same team as

the participant. The struggle for the participant to communicate with team members

and the community’s attention to the meaning in the conversations rather than

problematic linguistic usages enabled him to develop his language skills more

effectively. The participant stated that the game was beneficial for him to improve his

language skills, specifically for the development of his writing performance. An

important implication of the article is that goal-oriented communication activities in

computer games prioritizing meaning over structure can be beneficial for the

development of target language skills in a more comfortable atmosphere.

In a study that was centered around the exploration of English acquisition

through various sources, De Wilde and Eyckmans (2017) investigated the incidental

English acquisition of 30 children who had never been instructed in English formally.

The researchers identified the characteristics of learners through a questionnaire in

order to find out about the English sources that the children were exposed to. These

included speaking, computer use, gaming, reading, listening to music, and watching

TV with or without subtitles. The language proficiency levels of the participants on

four language skills were assessed through a proficiency test and the vocabulary

knowledge of the participants were evaluated via a receptive vocabulary test. The

findings firstly indicated that some participants could already perform at A2 level

English proficiency without receiving any formal instruction in English at all. The

results further showed that gaming in English had significant relationships with

vocabulary knowledge, and the level of proficiency in reading and writing, listening,

and speaking. The only other activity that involved significant relationship with the

target language knowledge and skill levels except for listening skill was computer use.

The other sources did not have a significant relationship with the vocabulary

knowledge and target language skills of the participants. Moreover, the children, who

were exposed to English only through the aforementioned sources, regarded English

as a “fun” language according to the findings of the study.

Another recent study that has implications for language learning in computer

games was carried out by Khanmurzina (2020). Although the study was centered on

the effects of computer games on the everyday lives of students instead of computer

games and language learning, the findings of the study involved outcomes for learning

English, as well. By collecting data from student gamers aged 18-25, the researchers

sought to identify how much students are engaged with computer games, how

influencing the social environment is for the involvement of students in these games,

and what impacts computer games have on learners. The researchers identified the

aspects of games that attract the attention of student gamers as “the plot (history of the

universe); the atmosphere in the game; interactivity; colorful characters; freedom of

action; anonymity; openness; the acquisition of gaming experience; the ability to play

other roles; interesting spending of time; interesting quests (in-game tasks); beautiful

graphics; competition; possibility to learn to communicate”, and the skills that are

acquired through computer games as “meeting new people; learning English;

improving communication skills; know interesting stories; learn historical moments;

learn military Affairs (weapons, equipment, military battles, etc.); know myths and

legends of different world cultures.” (p. 16). It can be understood from the findings

that computer games can be beneficial in learning English and improving

communicative language skills.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.0. Presentation

This chapter provides information about the methodology of the present

research study. Firstly, it offers a general explanation on the main methodology of

research that was used in the present study along with the data collection tools and

procedures. This includes an expression on how quantitative and qualitative data were

collected and with what purpose. Then it provides detailed information about the

participants of the study along with the rationale for their selection and their

background information. Information about the participants is further elaborated in the

upcoming subheadings of data collection tools. The participants subsection is followed

by a thorough account of the data collection tools including their creation and

implementation. This subsection involves detailed information about why the data

tools were used and how they were created considering the aims of the present study.

In addition to their selection and creation, a thorough explanation on how the data

collection tools were implemented in a specific order is clarified. Finally, a description

of how the collected data were analyzed is provided.

3.1. Overview of the Methodology

The present study was carried out through a sequential explanatory mixed-

methods design. Creswell (2009) indicates that in a sequential explanatory mixed-

methods design, quantitative data collection and analysis precedes qualitative data

collection and analysis since the latter is intended to provide explanations on the

findings of the former (p. 211). In the present study, quantitative data formed the main

database whereas deeper information about quantitative findings was expected to be

gained through qualitative data. The quantitative data were collected through a

questionnaire which aimed at uncovering the opinions of the participants on how

frequently they learn target language knowledge and practice target language skills in

different computer game modes and genres, and an observation of streams of computer

games with different modes and genres which were based on calculating the frequency

and the amount of time that was spent on learning and practicing target language

knowledge and skills in these games. The qualitative data were collected through the

observation of game streams and semi-structured interviews with the participants.

During the observation, the types of language learning and practicing were noted to be

analyzed qualitatively. The interview questions were prepared based on the results of

the quantitative data in an effort to shed light on the reasons of any potential differences

among the game modes and genres in learning and practicing English. An overall

overview of the procedure is provided in Figure 1.

3.1. Participants

The study had a main group of participants, all of whom took part in the first

data collection phase. Their responses were determining for the selection of materials

for data collection in the second data collection phase and some of these participants

were further sampled for data collection in the third data collection phase. The

participants were selected according to snowball sampling on a voluntary basis. The

criteria for the selection of participants in the present study was to be a non-native

English speaker over the age of 18 who was exposed to English in computer games

via single-player and multiplayer game modes, and action, adventure, role-playing,

strategy, and simulation genres. Non-native English-speaking gamers were invited to

take part in the study via the personal connections of the researcher through online

social platforms. Volunteering participants were asked to invite anyone who might be

interested to take part in the study, as well. In order to find the recommended sample

size for the analyses to be carried out to achieve enough power with medium effect

size and an error probability of 0.05, sample size calculations were carried out via

GPower. The statistical tests to be used as part of the present study Mann-Whitney U

test for the first research question, and Friedman test and Wilcoxon signed-rank test

for the second and third research questions. The sample size analysis indicated that the

Mann-Whitney U test required a total sample of 134 participants, Wilcoxon signed-

rank test required a total sample of 35 participants, and the Friedman test required 24

participants and 21 participants in two different comparisons for a statistical power of

0.80 to be achieved with a medium effect size and an error probability of 0.05.

Figure 1 Overview of the procedure

Piloting

•Firstly, opinions of 6 experts were gathered in order to ensure the content validity of

the questionnaire. Then, the questionnaire was piloted with 31 participants that

were selected through voluntary sampling to ensure face validity, construct validity

and internal consistency.

Sampling

•Potential participants who might be interested in taking part in the study were

invited to participate via online diffferent social platforms on gaming. Each

participant who took part in the study were asked to share the invitation with

anyone in their circles who might be interested in taking part, as well. Therefore, the

study employed snowball sampling.

Questionnaire

•The participants who volunteereed to take part in the study were asked to fill out

the questionnaire, in which they were requested to state their opinions about the

frequency of learning and practicing target language knowledge and skills in two

game modes and five game genres. Comparative analyses were carried out to find

out any potential differences in the frequency of language learning and practice

among and within these games.

Observation

•The most frequently played games that were reported by the participants in the

questionnaire were selected for observation, and streams of these games by non-

native English speaking streamers were observed in order to record the amount of

time spent on practicing language skills. Comparative analyses were applied to look

for the differences in the frequency, duration, and the types of language learning

activities across different game modes and genres.

Interview

•At the end of the questionnaire, the participants were asked whether they would

like to attend an online interview to share their opinions about language learning in

different computer game modes and genres. Following the application and the

analysis of the questionnaire and the observation, the interviews were carried out to

learn about their opinions regarding language learning in computer games.

A total of 111 participants took part in the study (See Table 1 for an overview

of demographics). The youngest participant was 18 years old while the oldest

participant was 45 years old. The median age of the participants was 21. 105 of the

participants were from Turkey, two participants were from Indonesia, one participant

was from India, one was from Pakistan, one was from Poland, and one was from

United Arab Emirates. The native languages of the participants included Turkish,

Hindi, Indonesian, Sudanese Arabic, Javanese, and Urdu. In terms of their education

level, 19 participants reported that they were high school graduates, 43 of the

participants were undergraduate students, 29 participants had bachelor’s degree, eight

participants were master’s students, seven participants had master’s degree, and five

participants were PhD students. When it comes to English proficiency levels of the

participants based on their previous education and certificates they had received,

and/or self-evaluation through Common European Framework of Reference self-

identification grid, four participants reported that they had A1 level, eight participants

had A2 level, 27 participants had B1 level, 33 participants had B2 level, 25 participants

had C1 level, and 14 participants had C2 level English proficiency.

Table 1 An overview of participants’ demographic information

Variable

Number

Percentage

Age 18-24

75.67%

25-34

19.81%

≥ 35

4.5%

Proficiency A1-A2

10.81%

B1-B2

54.05%

C1-C2

35.13%

Education High school graduate

17.11%

Undergraduate student

38.73%

Bachelor’s degree

26.12%

Master’s student

7.2%

Master’s degree

6.3%

PhD student

4.5%

Native Language Turkish

105

94.59%

Other

5.4%

The participants reported how often they played games from a specific genre

weekly, which game/s they played from each genre, and whether they preferred the

single-player or the multiplayer game mode in each genre. The details of these are

provided in the following paragraphs. The genres of the games reported by the

participants were checked and confirmed based on information from Wikipedia,

Internet Game Database, and Imagine Games Network.

The background information of the participants in terms of their activity with

action game genre demonstrated the following. 29 participants reported that they

played action games up to one hour, 14 participants reported that they played action

games for 1-2 hours, 17 participants reported that they played action games for 2-3

hours, 25 participants reported that they played action games for 3-4 hours, and 26

participants reported that they played action games for five hours or more every week.

The games played by the participants in the action genre involved Apex Legends,

Aragami, Assassin’s Creed, Battlefield, Battlefield 2, Battlefield 4, Battlefield V,

Battlerite, Battlerite Royale, Batman: Arkham City, Batman: Arkham Asylum, Black

Mesa, Borderlands, Call of Duty: Black Ops, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare, Call of

Duty: Warzone, Call of Duty: WWII, Counter Strike 1.6, Counter Strike: Global

Offensive, Crysis, Crysis 2, Crysis 3, Darksiders, Darksiders 2, Darksiders Genesis,

Dead Island Riptide, Deceit, Destiny 2, Dishonored, Dishonored 2, Dishonored Death

of the Outsider, Doom, Dying Lights, Escape from Tarkov, Far Cry, Genshin Impact,

God of War, Fortnite, Grand Theft Auto 3, Grand Theft Auto V, Grand Theft Auto:

Vice City, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, Half-Life, Half-Life 2, Halo, Halo Infinite,

Homefront, Hitman, Hunt: Showdown, Left 4 Dead, Left 4 Dead 2, Hunt Showdown,

Killzone 3, Mad Max, Max Payne, Medal of Honor, Medal of Honor: Allied Assault,

Metro 2033, Orcs Must Die! 2, Paladins, Payday 2, PlayerUnknown’s Battlegrounds,

Prototype, Prototype 2, Quake 3, Rainbow Six Siege, Ready or Not, Red Dead

Redemption, Red Dead Redemption 2, Serious Sam 2, Serious Sam 3, Squad,

S.T.A.L.K.E.R., Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Blacklist, Tomb Raider, Shadow Warrior,

Sniper: Ghost Warrior, Team Fortress Classic, Team Fortress 2, Vampire: The

Masquerade – Bloodhunt, Valorant, Warframe, Wolfenstein, Wolfteam. 35 participants

stated that they preferred the single-player game mode in action games while the

remaining 76 participants reported that they preferred the multiplayer game mode.

Regarding the adventure games, 48 participants stated that they played games

from this genre up to one hour, 22 participants stated that they played the adventure

games for 1-2 hours, 16 participants stated that they played adventure games for 2-3

hours, 15 participants stated that they played adventure games for 3-4 hours, and 10

participants stated that they played adventure games for 5 hours or more every week.

The adventure games played by the participants included 12 Minutes, Ark Survival,

Assassin’s Creed, Fallout, Far Cry, Beyond: Two Souls, Bob’s World Super

Adventure, Control, Death Stranding, Devour, Disco Elysium, Dishonored, Don’t

Starve Together, Dying Light, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, The Forest, The Forgotten

City, Ghost of Tsushima, God of War, Grand Theft Auto V, Harry Potter and the

Sorcerer's Stone, Heavy Rain, Hollow Knight, Grim Fandango, Immortals Fenyx

Rising, Inscryption, It Takes Two, Just Cause 3, Just Cause 4, L.A. Noire, The Last of

Us, The Last of Us 2, The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, Life is Strange, The

Long Dark, Lost Ark, Machinarium, Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor, Minecraft,

Prince of Persia, Prototype 1, Prototype 2, Rayman, Red Dead Redemption 2, Roblox,

Sea of Thieves, Rogue Legacy 2, The Secret of Monkey Island, Sanitarium, Shovel

Knight, The Stanley Parable, Sherlock Holmes: Nemesis, Subnautica, Terraria, The

Walking Dead, The Wolf Among Us, Tomb Raider, Uncharted, Winter Ember, Watch

Dogs. 79 participants reported that they preferred to play adventure games in single-

player game mode while 32 participants reported that they preferred the multiplayer

game mode in adventure games.

When it comes to role-playing games, 52 participants reported that they played

role-playing games up to an hour, 16 participants reported that they played role-

playing games for 1-2 hours, 13 participants reported that they played role-playing

games for 2-3 hours, 16 participants reported that they played role-playing games for

3-4 hours, and 14 participants reported that they played role-playing games for 5 hours

or more every week. The role-playing games played by the participants involved

ANNO: Mutationem, ArcheAge, Baldur’s Gate, Cyberpunk 2077, Dark Souls, Dark

Souls 3, Deltarune, Diablo, Diablo 2, Diablo 3, Disco Elysium, Divinity: Original Sin

II, Dragon Age: Origins, Dungeons & Dragons, Dying Light, Dying Light 2, The Elder

Scrolls III: Morrowind, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim,

Elyon, Eternium, EVE Online, Fallout, Fallout 4, Fallout: New Vegas, Final Fantasy,

Final Fantasy XIV, Final Fantasy XV, Genshin Impact, Grand Theft Auto: V,

GreedFall, Hades, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, Horizon: Zero Dawn,

Icewind Dale, Kingdom Come: Deliverance, Knight Online, The Legend of Heroes,

Lost Ark, Mass Effect, Metin2, Mount & Blade, Mount & Blade: Warband, Mount &

Blade II: Bannerlord, Neverwinter Nights, Neverwinter Nights 2, Neverwinter Nights:

Legends, Neverwinter Nights Kingmaker, Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch, The

Outer Worlds, Path of Exile, Red Dead Redemption 2, Sea of Thieves, Middle-earth:

Shadow of Mordor, Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, Super Mario RPG:

Legend of the Seven Stars, The Witcher, The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings,

Underworld, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, World of Warcraft. 69 of the participants

indicated that they preferred the single-player mode in role-playing games whereas the

remaining 42 stated that they preferred the multiplayer mode in role-playing genre.

In the strategy genre, 49 participants stated that they played strategy games up

to an hour, 11 participants stated that they played strategy games for 1-2 hours, 20

participants stated that they played strategy games for 2-3 hours, 11 participants stated

that they played strategy games for 3-4 hours, and the remaining 20 participants stated

that they played strategy games for 5 hours or more every week. The strategy games

played by the participants included 1944: Battle of the Bulge, Afrika Korps vs Desert

Rats, Age of Empires, Age of Empires II, Age of Empires II Definitive Edition, Age of

Empires III, Age of Mythology, Among Us, Anno 1800 , Call to Arms, Cities: Skylines,

Clash of Clans, Clash Royale, Command & Conquer: Red Alert, Command &

Conquer: Renegade, Company of Heroes, Company of Heroes 2, Coromon, Cossacks,

Crusader Kings, Crusader Kings II, D-Day, The Dark Legions, Dota 2, Empire: Total

War, Empire Earth, Europa Universalis, Europa Universalis IV, Evony, For the King,

Gates of Hell, Hearthstone, Hearts of Iron, Hearts of Iron IV, Heroes of Might &

Magic, Heroes of Newerth, Heroes of the Storm, Humankind, Inscryption, Last Day

on Earth: Survival, League of Legends, League of Legends: Teamfight Tactics,

Legends of Runeterra, The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle Earth, The Lord

of the Rings: The Battle for Middle Earth II, Medieval: Total War, Medieval II: Total

War, Mobile Legends, Moscow to Berlin: Red Siege, Mount & Blade, Mount & Blade:

Warband, Mount & Blade 2: Bannerlord, Northgard, Paladins, Rise of Nations, Rome:

Total War, Total War: Rome II, Sea Battle: Through the Ages, Sid Meier’s Civilization,

Sid Meier’s Civilization V, Sid Meier’s Civilization VI, SimCity, SimCity 4, Slay the

Spire, Starcraft, StarCraft II, Stellaris, Stronghold, Stronghold Crusader, Total War:

Warhammer, Victoria II, Warcraft III. 49 of the participants stated that they preferred

playing strategy games single-player. In contrast, the remaining 62 reported that they

preferred playing strategy games in multiplayer game mode.

Finally, in the simulation genre, 50 participants stated that they played

simulation games up to an hour, 14 participants stated that they played simulation

games for 1-2 hours, 19 participants stated that they played simulation games for 2-3

hours, 16 participants stated that they played simulation games for 3-4 hours, and 12

participants stated that they played simulation games for 5 hours or more every week.

The simulation games played by the participants involved American Truck Simulator,

ArmA III, Beholder, Camping Simulator: The Squad, Car Mechanic Simulator 2021,

CarX Drift Racing, Cities: Skylines, City Car Driving, eFootball PES 2021 Season

Update, Euro Truck Simulator, Euro Truck Simulator 2, Factorio, F1 2022, Farming

Simulator, Farming Simulator 18, Farming Simulator 19, Farming Simulator 22,

FIFA 06, FIFA 07, FIFA 08, FIFA 2005, FIFA 2020, FIFA 22, Five Nights at Freddy's,

Flight Simulator, Football Manager 2022, Forza Horizon 4, Forza Horizon 5, Goat

Simulator, House Flipper, Madden NFL 22, Medieval Dynasty, Microsoft Flight

Simulator, MudRunner, NBA 2K, NBA 2K22, Need for Speed, Pro Evolution Soccer

2013, Race Driver: GRID, Roblox, Rocket League, Satisfactory, SimCity, The Sims,

The Sims 3, The Sims 4, Spintires, Stardew Valley, War Thunder, Weird West, WWE

'13, X-Plane 11. 74 participants reported that they preferred the single-player game

mode in simulation games, while 37 participants stated that they preferred the

multiplayer game mode in this genre.

3.2. Data Collection Tools and Procedure

Data collection took part in three phases. These phases involved data collection

through a questionnaire, observations, and interviews, respectively. The quantitative

data of the study were collected through the questionnaire and the observations. The

questionnaire aimed at finding out about the opinions of the participants with regard

to the frequency of learning target language knowledge and practicing target language

skills in different game modes and genres. The questionnaire was composed of

background questions and Likert scale items. The observations targeted calculating the

frequency and the amount of time spent in different computer game modes and genres

for the practicing of target language skills. The qualitative data of the study were

collected through the observation of game streams and semi-structured interviews. The

observation aimed at finding out about the types of language learning activities that

take place in gaming sessions in addition to their frequencies and durations. In the

interviews, participants were asked to share their opinions about the quantitative

findings of the study, their ideas about the advantages and disadvantages of learning

English in different game modes and genres, their suggestions for improving the

effectiveness of language learning in specific game modes and genres, and their

expectations from computer games for language learning.

3.2.1 Questionnaire

The first section of the questionnaire is comprised of background questions.

These questions aim at finding out about participants’ home countries, native

languages, ages, levels of education, weekly gaming hours and self-identified English

proficiency levels. The following sections are allocated to action, adventure, role-

playing, strategy, and simulation genres, respectively. In each section, the participants

are first asked to provide information on how frequently they learn the meaning, the

spelling, and the pronunciation of English vocabulary items and grammar structures,

and how frequently they practice English reading, listening, writing, and speaking

skills in computer games of that specific genre according to five-point frequency-based

Likert scale options that include never, rarely, sometimes, often, and always.

In order to ensure the validity and the reliability of the questionnaire, expert

opinions were gathered, and the questionnaire was pilot tested with 31 participants

prior to its application. The validity of the questionnaire was tested through content

validity, face validity, and construct validity evaluations. First of all, six experts were

asked to evaluate the instrument as to whether it measures the intended points so as to

check for readability, clarity and comprehensiveness through 3 options; 0 (the item is

not suitable), 1 (the item can be improved), and 2 (the item is suitable) to find out about

the content validity of the questionnaire. The evaluations of the experts revealed that

all questionnaire items were deemed suitable with a rating of 2. Almanasreh et al.

(2019) stated that an I-CVI (content validity index of an item) of 0.78 is an acceptable

level for the inclusion of an item as part of an analysis by 5-10 experts. The analysis

of the expert ratings corresponds to an I-CVI of 1 out of 1 for each item in the

questionnaire, which indicates an acceptable level.

In the pilot testing of the questionnaire, three Likert scale questions were asked

to the participants at the end of the survey to learn about their opinions on the clarity,

readability, and consistency of the items in the questionnaire from 1 (extremely

unclear, extremely unreadable, extremely inconsistent) to 5 (extremely clear,

extremely readable, extremely consistent). The mean score of each of these questions

were analyzed through sign tests to find out whether there was a significant difference

from the neutral hypothesis value of 3 (not sure). The findings indicated that the

median values were significantly higher than the neutral point for clarity (p < .0001),

readability (p < .0001), and consistency with a mean score of (p < .0001). The analysis

indicated that the participants considered the items in the questionnaire to be clear,

readable, and consistent.

Finally, hypothesis tests were carried out in an effort to ensure construct

validity. To this end, the results of studies that have evaluated the effectiveness of

computer games through tests were compared with the results in the questionnaire.

Empirical findings indicated that there were significant vocabulary gains in computer

games with the genres of action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and simulation with

single-player and multiplayer game modes (Palmberg, 1988; Miller & Hegelheimer,

2006; Ranalli, 2008; Rankin et al., 2009; Bakar & Nosratirad, 2013; Huang & Yang,

2014; Rahman & Angraeni, 2020; DeHaan et al., 2010). The mean scores for the

median of the frequency ratings of vocabulary learning in the aforementioned game

modes and genres in the pilot questionnaire were calculated and compared with the

hypothesis value of 3 (sometimes) through a sign test in order to find out whether the

outcome indicated a significant frequency for the learning of vocabulary items. The

participants reported that they frequently learned new vocabulary items in these game

modes and genres (p = .026). Thus, the pilot findings were in line with existing

literature concerning vocabulary learning in computer games.

There are several empirical studies in the literature which show that computer

games with single-player and multiplayer game modes, and with the genres of action,

adventure, role-playing, strategy, and simulation contribute to the reading skills of

language learners. (Baltra, 1990; Taylor, 1990; Jordan, 1992; Rankin et al., 2009; Chen

& Yang, 2011; Sarı & Chen, 2013; Bytheway, 2015). The mean scores of the ratings

given by the participants in the pilot study for the median of the frequency ratings for

practicing reading in these modes and genres were compared with the hypothesis value

of 3 through a sign test in an effort to find out whether there was a significant frequency

of reading practice. The responses of the participants indicated significantly frequent

practicing of reading in all the game modes and genres involved (p = .001), indicating

similarity with the existing literature.

Similar to the improvement of target language reading, the studies also

demonstrate that there is improvement in listening in computer games with single-

player and multiplayer game modes, and action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and

simulation genres (Baltra, 1990; Taylor, 1990; Rankin et al., 2009; Chen & Yang,

2011). The findings of the pilot questionnaire were also compared to find out whether

the findings were in line with the existing literature. The median frequency rating

scores given by participants to all the genres and modes included in the study were

calculated and compared with the hypothesis value of 3 to check for any significant

differences. Results demonstrated that there is a significantly frequent practicing of

listening in these game modes and genres of (p < .0001) which displayed that the

findings were in accordance with the existing literature.

Unlike the receptive skills of reading and listening, which can naturally occur

in single player and multiplayer online game modes, writing and speaking practice

often happens in multiplayer game mode due to the productive nature of these skills.

There is empirical evidence in the literature that, in various multiplayer games, there

can be practice and improvement in target language writing (Shahrokni et al., 2020)

and speaking (Altınbaş, 2018). In order to find out whether the findings in the pilot

questionnaire are alignment with the findings in the literature, the mean scores of the

frequency ratings of the participants for the practicing of target language writing and

speaking were compared with the hypothesis value of 3 to find out whether there was

significant practicing of these skills in multiplayer games. Both the median score for

writing (p = .043) and the median score for speaking (p = 0.004) were significantly

higher than the hypothesis value, which indicated significantly frequent practicing of

these skills in multiplayer games. Therefore, the findings were found to be in line with

the findings of studies in literature.

Finally, in an effort to ensure the reliability of the questionnaire, its internal

consistency was tested through Cronbach’s alpha (Cronbach, 1951). The results

indicated an acceptable level of reliability (α = 0.930).

Following the analyses for the validity and the reliability of the questionnaire,

the data collection started. The data were collected online via Google Forms. The

participants of the questionnaire formed the main participants of the study and

therefore all the participants took part in the questionnaire.

3.2.2. Observation

Following the questionnaire, observations were carried out through the

publicly available streams of each computer game genre to find out about the amount

of time spent on each skill in different game modes and genres (See Appendix B). To

this end, a list of the games the participants reported as the ones that they played were

created. For each mode and genre, the most common game in single-player and

multiplayer was selected for observation. After the identification of the games that was

going to be observed, these games were searched on YouTube for their stream

recordings. Streams are game-play broadcasts which usually display the game that is

being played on the screen while also featuring the streamer that is playing the game

in a small box on the screen through a camera and the voice of the streamer through a

microphone. Game-streams were chosen as the area of observation since they provide

an opportunity to follow both the game and the actions of the player simultaneously.

Streams that featured an English inter-face and a non-native English-speaking

streamer were taken into the scope of the observation. Game streams can feature

additional elements such as introductory activities prior to the gaming session and

interaction with the audience in addition to the actual gaming activity within the

gaming session. Such activities prior to or during the gaming session were excluded

from the scope of the observation. The focus of observation were on in-game activities

of the streamer.

The selection criteria for the game streams involved the following. The game

interface of the stream must be in English, and the main communication language in

multiplayer games must be English. Any use of a language other than English as part

of the gaming session was disregarded during the observation. The streamer must be a

non-native English speaker. This was ensured by searching information about the

streamer through the channel information page or on the Internet. The stream needs to

be audible. Any stream that included inaudible content of the game or inaudible audio

input by the streamer or other players that might be present in multiplayer games were

not taken into the scope of the observation. In cases where any suitable stream meeting

these criteria were unavailable, the next most commonly played game in each game

mode and genre combination was searched on previously mentioned platforms for

suitable streams. The stream must also be longer than 30 minutes. Considering the

differing lengths of streams from a couple of minutes to several hours, a standard

observation duration needed to be determined. This duration was identified as 30

minutes in order to have access to a variety of game instances. Streams around 30

minutes were preferred for the observation. In cases where a stream around 30 minutes

that met the other criteria was not available, longer streams were included for the

observation with their first 30 minutes observed.

The observations focused on finding out the types of language practicing

activities in different game modes and genres with their duration and frequency. They

were carried out by first watching the whole target gaming session for developing a

familiarity. Then, the session was rewatched by taking notes of every kind of in-game

language practicing activity. These language practicing instances were noted with their

duration and frequency. For example, if an act of listening started at 13 minutes and

42 seconds of the observation and ended at 13 minutes and 55 seconds, this act of

listening was noted with its description as a 13-second and one-frequency listening

practice. If the same type of listening practice occurred again, then its length and

another frequency count was added to this note. The same steps were applied from the

beginning of the observation till the end.

Based on the aims and the criteria of the observation, the games that were

selected to be observed were Call of Duty: Modern Warfare, Counter Strike: Global

Offensive, The Walking Dead, Minecraft, The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt, World of

Warcraft, Age of Empires II, League of Legends, Euro Truck Simulator 2, and FIFA

22. Each of these games belonged to a specific genre and game mode within the scope

of the study. Streams of these games were searched on YouTube and the first stream

that best met the observation criteria was selected for observation. The streams that

were included in the observation involved streamers from Bulgaria, China, Denmark,

Germany, Malta, Netherlands, Russia, Taiwan, Turkey, and Ukraine.

The single-player action game observation featured a game stream of Call of

Duty: Modern Warfare, developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision (See

Figure 2). The game takes its inspiration from conflicts across the world and aims to

provide players as realistic a setting as possible. This first-person shooter merges real-

world settings with fictional ones to create a realistic setting, in which the player must

fulfill certain missions to fight against terrorism and invasion. It is one of the latest

installments to a series of games published under the same name. Unlike some other

games published under the franchise, the game takes its setting in modern day. The

players are expected to complete a series of missions in order to finish the game. The

stream observation mostly involved a specific mission, where the player was exposed

to several conversations that mostly take place between the main character and other

characters in the game face-to-face or through radio communication. These

conversations were not only in audio format, but also presented through subtitles.

Figure 2 Call of Duty: Modern Warfare

Note: retrieved from https://blog.activision.com/call-of-duty/2020-05/Call-of-Duty-

Modern-Warfare-The-Story-So-Far

The multiplayer action game observation included a game stream from another

first-person shooter, Counter Strike: Global Offensive, developed and published by

Valve (See Figure 3). The game takes place in imaginary maps, in which two teams,

counter terrorists and terrorists, fight against each other to fulfill certain missions. In

various objective-based game modes, the game sets two teams, the terrorists and the

counter-terrorists, against each another. The most commonly played gameplay features

terrorists planting a bomb as counter-Terrorists try to stop them. In order to fulfill these

missions, players often need to communicate with their teammates. The game stream

involved a player in a team of five competing against another team.

Figure 3 Counter Strike: Global Offensive

Note: Retrieved from https://blog.counter-strike.net/index.php/2020/04/29701/

The single-player adventure game observation covered a game stream of The

Walking Dead, developed and published by Telltale Games (See Figure 4). The game

takes place in a post-apocalyptic scenario of zombie invasion in Georgia, United

States. The player is expected to survive by performing the required actions and

making sound decisions. The game stream featured a certain part of the game where

the player was exposed to certain cutscenes in the story and performed several actions

in order to get rid of the zombies. In the game, the player encounters several dialogues

as well as their subtitles, and occasionally, the player needs to respond to other in-

game characters by selecting a specific list of responses from a list.

The multiplayer adventure game featured a game stream of Minecraft,

developed and published by Mojang (See Figure 5). Minecraft is a sandbox game

which features a blocky style. Players can utilize several crafting tools and materials

gathered from earth piles to build structures and other related things. They can play

the game single-player against the environment or by teaming up with other players in

the multiplayer game mode. The game stream focused on the adventure mode of the

game, where the player teamed up with other players to perform certain objectives a

labyrinth-like map. Within the game, the players were expected to communicate with

one another, usually through a microphone, in order to survive and perform the

objectives.

Figure 4 The Walking Dead

Note: Retrieved from

https://telltalegames.fandom.com/wiki/The_Walking_Dead:_Season_One

Figure 5 Minecraft

Note: Retrieved from https://www.minecraft.net/en-us/article/how-minecraft

The single-player role-playing game involved a stream session of The Witcher

3: The Wild Hunt, developed and published by CD Projekt Red (See Figure 6). The

game is set in a fantasy world, where the player takes on the role of a protagonist and

is expected to follow a storyline of events to complete certain quests. There is a

detailed character development in the game from equipment of several different items

to development of diverse skills. In the stream, the player interacted with several in-

game characters, mostly through listening to dialogues as well as reading subtitles of

them, to complete the quests. The player also occasionally needed to make certain

decisions in the storyline, often during conversations, which had an impact on the

course of the storyline.

The multiplayer role-playing game featured a stream of World of Warcraft,

developed and published by Blizzard Entertainment (See Figure 7). This game is also

set in a fantasy world, where the player creates a character and develops this character

through different levels via items, skills, and other related features. Similar to the

single-player role-playing game, the player is expected to fulfill certain quests, but in

this game, the player teams up with other players to complete these quests. A typical

server can involve thousands of players who are trying to complete in-game objectives

simultaneously with other players. The stream session focused on instances where the

player teamed up with other players to defeat some characters in the game. In order to

do this, the player was expected to communicate with the other players through a

microphone to display a better performance as a team.

Figure 6 The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt

Note: Retrieved from https://www.thewitcher.com/us/en/witcher3#media

Figure 7 World of Warcraft

Note: Retrieved from https://news.blizzard.com/en-us/world-of-

warcraft/23837944/get-into-the-grid-of-things-with-the-updated-ui-and-hud

The single-player strategy game involved a stream of a real-time strategy game,

Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition, developed by Forgotten Empires and published

by Xbox Game Studios (See Figure 8). The game has different settings, maps, and

campaigns, in which players are expected to complete certain quests to win. The

gaming session required the player to complete a quest with real historical background.

In the gaming session, the player was expected to read and listen to a storyline to

perform specific tasks by commanding some characters and a group of units. While

doing this, the player also read and listened to different in-game characters.

The multiplayer strategy game featured a streaming session of League of

Legends, developed and published by Riot Games (see Figure 9). League of Legends

is a multiplayer online battle arena, in which players team up in teams of five to

compete against another team of five. The game features casual and competitive game

modes which relies heavily on cooperation among teammates. Within the game,

players are expected to communicate with one another by typing messages, through a

microphone, or via using certain signs to indicate their messages. In the gaming

session, the player communicated with teammates via a microphone to achieve a better

in-game performance.

Figure 8 Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition

Note: Retrieved from https://www.ageofempires.com/news/visual-look-at-aoe2de/

Figure 9 League of Legends

Note: Retrieved from https://nexus.leagueoflegends.com/en-au/2019/12/unleashing-

the-elements/

The single-player simulation game included a streaming session of Euro Truck

Simulator 2, developed and published by SCS Software (See Figure 10). The game

expects players to convey different types of cargo across countries and cities. While

doing this, the player is often required to monitor specific messages, reports, and notes

to avoid problems. In the stream, the player was expected to deliver cargo from one

city to another. While doing this, he followed the notification panel to learn about

reports regarding the mission and the vehicle. The multiplayer simulation game

included a stream of FIFA 22 by EA Sports (See Figure 11). In the game, players

compete against other players with the aim of winning matches. In the gaming session,

the player competed against other players to win these matches. In the meantime, the

player was exposed to the comments and the remarks of the speaker, and the

commentator based on the actions in the game.

Figure 10 Euro Truck Simulator 2

Note: Retrieved from https://eurotrucksimulator2.com/buy.php

Figure 11 FIFA 22

Retrieved from https://fifauteam.com/fifa-22-screenshots/

3.2.2. Interview

After the collection and the analysis of the quantitative data, interviews were

carried with volunteering participants to learn about in-depth information regarding

their opinions on the differences in computer game modes and genres in terms of

learning and practicing English (See Appendix C). The interview questions were

prepared in an effort to learn about the general opinions of the participants about

language learning in specific game modes and genres in addition to their opinions

about the outcomes of the present study. In the questionnaire, the final item asked

participants whether they would be willing to take part in an interview to share their

opinions of computer games and language learning in more detail. The participants

that volunteered were informed about the interview through emails, and they were

invited to participate on a voluntary basis. The participant selection was carried out

from the participants who replied the invitation email positively. Purposive sampling

was used to select the participants to be interviewed among the volunteers based on

which participants could provide the most relevant information considering their level

of involvement in specific game modes and genres according to noteworthy findings

from the quantitative analysis. In total, 10 volunteering participants were needed for

the interview to share their ideas on language learning in one of the two game modes

and one of the five genres involved in the study. For example one participant was

expected to share opinions on language learning in single-player adventure games

whereas another one was expected to share opinions on language learning in

multiplayer strategy games. The criteria for the selection of participants for the

interview were volunteering to take part in the interview, playing the most frequently

played game in the questionnaire, which was at the same time the observed game

during the observations, in a specific game genre and mode, and spending the highest

amount of time to this specific genre in weekly gaming. If no volunteering participants

met the last two criteria in a specific genre and game mode, a participant that met one

of these criteria was selected for the interview in that specific game mode and genre.

After the identification of the participants to take part in the interviews, the interviews

were carried out online or face-to-face depending on the preference of the participant.

The meetings were recorded and transcribed with the help of Microsoft Word. Then

analyzed via QDA Miner.

In total, 10 participants were selected for the study (See Table 2 for an

overview). Each participant was selected to share their ideas on computer games and

language learning, focusing on a single game-mode and genre combination, in order

to get opinions about all game modes and genres that were involved in the study and

achieve a dataset as balanced as possible. This does not mean that each participant only

shared opinions about a single game mode and genre and did not voice any ideas about

the other game modes and genres at all. The participants of the present study have

experience with all the genres involved in the present study. Thus, they occasionally

shared their opinions about other game modes and genres, as well. However, most of

their responses focused on the genre that they were selected to be interviewed about,

and the game mode they preferred in this genre. The participants were also given

pseudonyms based on the game mode and genre on which they were asked to focus.

The pseudonyms were created by adding game mode, genre, and respondent. For

example, the participant that was selected for action games and preferred the single-

player game mode was given the pseudonym single-player action game respondent.

Table 2 Overview of interview participants

Pseudonyms of the

participants

Games played in the

game mode and genre

combination

Educational

Background

Perceived

English

Proficiency

Single-player action

game respondent

Call of Duty series, God

of War series, Grand

Theft Auto series and

Max Payne series

Undergrad.

student

Multiplayer action game

respondent

Counter-Strike Global

Offensive, Apex Legends,

Valorant, Fortnite

Undergrad.

student

Single-player adventure

game respondent

Machinarium, the

Walking Dead

Master’s

degree

Multiplayer adventure

game respondent

Terraria, Minecraft, Life

is strange, Genshin

Impact, Lost Ark

Undergrad.

student

Table 2 (Continued)

Pseudonyms of the

participants

Games played in the

game mode and genre

combination

Educational

Background

Perceived

English

Proficiency

Single-player role-

playing game respondent

The Witcher 3: The Wild

Hunt, The Elder Scrolls

V: Skyrim, Fallout

PhD student

Multiplayer role-playing

game respondent

World of Warcraft

PhD student

Single-player strategy

game respondent

Total War series, Hearts

of Iron 4, Age of Empires

series, Red Alert series

Undergrad.

student

Multiplayer strategy

game respondent

League of Legends

Bachelor’s

Degree

Single-player simulation

game respondent

Euro Truck Simulator 2,

Cities: Skylines

Undergrad.

student

Multiplayer simulation

game respondent

FIFA 21, F1 2021

Undergrad.

student

3.3. Data Analysis

Quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were used to find answers

to the research questions of the study (see Table 3 for a brief summary of the

procedure). Firstly, the questionnaire was carried out and analyzed through statistical

techniques in order to find out about the differences between and within different game

modes and genres in terms of learning and practicing target language knowledge and

skills. Following the questionnaire, the observations were conducted and analyzed via

content analysis to understand what type of language practicing activities take place in

different game modes and genres. Finally, the interviews were implemented and

analyzed through thematic analysis to learn about the opinions of the participants

regarding language learning in different game modes and genres.

Table 3 Summary of the research questions, data collection tools and data analysis

techniques

Research

question

To be answered by

Data Col.

Tool

Analysis technique

Research

Question 1

Comparing the frequency

of learning target language

knowledge and practicing

target language skills

between single-player and

multiplayer game modes.

Questionnaire

Descriptive analysis

Mann-Whitney U test

Effect size

(Pallant, 2010)

Research

Question 2

Comparing the frequency

of learning target language

knowledge and practicing

target language skills

among the genres.

Questionnaire

Descriptive analysis

Friedman Test

Effect size

(Pallant, 2010)

Research

Question 3

Comparing the frequency

of learning target language

knowledge and practicing

target language skills

within each genre.

Questionnaire

Descriptive analysis

Friedman Test

Effect size

(Pallant, 2010)

Research

Question 4

Identifying the activities of

language learning and

practicing in different

game modes and genres.

Observation

of streams

Content Analysis

(Erlingsson &

Brysiewicz, 2017)

Research

Question 5

Evaluating the opinions of

gamer language learners in

terms of learning and

practicing target language

knowledge and skills in

different game modes and

genres.

Interview

Thematic Analysis

(Braun & Clarke,

2006)

3.3.1. Analysis of the Questionnaire

The findings of the questionnaire were analyzed through SPSS by following

the guidelines provided by Pallant (2010). In an effort to answer the first research

question, the frequency ratings given by participants to single-player and multiplayer

game modes in terms of learning vocabulary and grammar, and practicing target

language reading, listening, writing and speaking were compared to find out whether

there were significant differences. To do this, first of all, the median of the rating given

by participants to single-player and multiplayer game modes on the frequency of

learning the meaning, the spelling, and the pronunciation of vocabulary and grammar

items was calculated for each participant to create an overall vocabulary learning and

grammar learning frequency. Then the overall vocabulary learning and grammar

learning frequency, and the frequency of practicing reading, listening, writing, and

speaking in single-player and multiplayer game modes were compared with each other

through Mann-Whitney U tests to find out whether there was a significant difference

between the two for the frequency of learning and practicing each target language

knowledge and skill type. Following this analysis, the results were evaluated with

regard to their effect sizes through Pearson’s r based on Cohen’s (1988) suggestions.

In order to answer the second research question, the ratings given by

participants for each computer game genre in terms of the frequency of overall

vocabulary and grammar learning, and practicing reading, listening, writing, and

speaking were compared. For example, the vocabulary learning frequency rating of all

five genres was compared with each other to find out whether there is a significant

difference among these genres with regard to learning target language vocabulary. The

same was applied for grammar, reading, listening, writing and speaking, respectively.

These comparisons were carried out via Friedman Tests owing to the repeated

measures design. If there appeared a significant difference among computer game

genres in any of the aforementioned target language knowledge and skill types as a

result of the test, post-hoc Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with Bonferroni correction were

applied to find out about pairwise differences among the genres. For instance, if there

was a significant difference among all genres in terms of reading practice frequency,

post-hoc pairwise comparisons via Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with Bonferroni

correction were to be conducted to understand whether there were significant

differences between pairs of genres. This was aimed at identifying whether there is

more frequent reading practice in that specific genre compared to some others or all

others. Following the Friedman test and the post hoc, the results were evaluated with

regard to their effect sizes via Pearson’s r based on Cohen’s criteria (1988).

To answer the third research question, the frequency ratings provided by

participants for each computer game genre with regard to learning target language

knowledge and practicing skills were compared with each other. For instance, the

vocabulary, grammar, reading, listening, writing, and speaking frequency ratings of

role-playing games were compared to find out whether there was a significant

difference in learning and practicing language knowledge and skills in this genre. The

same was applied for the other genres. The comparisons were conducted through

Friedman tests due to the repeated measures design. If any significant difference was

found among the effectiveness ratings of knowledge and skill types within any of the

genres as a result of the Friedman test, post-hoc pairwise comparisons were carried out

via multiple Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with Bonferroni correction to uncover

pairwise differences. For example, if the knowledge and skill ratings within strategy

games genre differed significantly, post-hoc Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were carried

out to find out whether there are pairwise differences between target language

knowledge and skill types. The goal was to discover whether the exposure to any

specific knowledge and skill type is more effective or less effective than the others in

a specific genre. Following this analysis, the effect size of any potentially significant

outcome was calculated.

3.3.2 Analysis of the Observations

The type of language practicing activities that were identified in the

observations were analyzed via content analysis by following the guidelines of

Erlingsson and Brysiewicz (2017) to answer the fourth research question. In addition

to this, the durations of language practicing were analyzed via descriptive statistics to

gain further insights into the first three research questions. Firstly, the game streams

were watched as a whole to become familiar with the content and the type of language

practicing activities that occur in gaming sessions. In the second cycle of the

observation, meaning units were identified and condensed to formulate codes. Finally,

the codes were grouped into categories to finalize the analysis. These codes and

categories were used to provide answers to the fourth research question. In order to

ensure the reliability and the validity of the analysis, the suggestions of Noble and

Smith (2015) regarding the truth value, consistency, neutrality, and applicability of the

analysis were taken into consideration. Two independent researchers were consulted

to check sample datasets to comment on the codes and categories identified by the

researcher to check for truth value, consistency, and neutrality. These researchers had

complete agreement with the researcher in the identification of the codes and

categories. The steps of the analysis were clearly described, and the codes and

categories created as a result of the analysis were plainly shared with the readers in

order to increase neutrality and confirmability. Also, samples were provided from the

observation for each category that was identified to increase the transparency of the

data. In addition to these, the findings of the observation were triangulated by

comparing them to the findings of the questionnaire in the findings of the observation

section, and by comparing them to the findings of the interview under the findings of

the interview section to ensure applicability. Another step in achieving applicability

was to compare the present findings with other findings in the literature.

In addition to content analysis, descriptive notes were also taken during the

observation. The duration and frequency of each code was noted during the

observation. At the end of the observation, the overall duration and code frequency for

the practicing of target language reading, listening, writing, and speaking were

calculated and the percentage for the practicing of each language skill was noted.

These were compared with the outcome of the questionnaire data to find out potential

similarities and differences to gain further insights about the first three research

questions.

3.3.3. Analysis of the Interviews

Finally, the interview transcripts were analyzed with a deductive approach

through thematic analysis considering the guidelines provided by Braun and Clarke

(2006) to find answers to the fifth research question. Microsoft Word was utilized for

the transcription of the interview records, and the analysis was carried out via a

computer software, QDA Miner. First of all, the interviews were transcribed and read

in detail in order to increase familiarity with the dataset. This was followed by the

initial coding process in which the data were organized according to the most basic

segments. After the identification of the codes, the codes were grouped into categories,

and then the categories were grouped into major themes. Since the interviews were

carried out in a semi-structured way and the questions focused on specific aspects of

computer games and language learning, the creation of the categories and the themes

via the codes was mostly theory-driven. At the end of the analysis, the findings were

reported with samples from the responses of the participants. Similar with the analysis

of the observation, the suggestions of Noble and Smith (2015) were taken into

consideration in order to ensure the truth value, consistency, neutrality, and the

applicability of the data. To increase truth value and consistency of the codes,

categories, and the themes, member checking were utilized. Two participants were

asked to share their opinions about how their responses were coded, categorized, and

themed by sharing samples of their responses and units of analyses as is. In order to

enable confirmability, participant responses were provided for each theme and

category that was uncovered as a result of the analysis. To ensure applicability, the

findings of the interview were compared with the findings of the questionnaire and the

observation, and the findings were also compared with existing findings in the

literature to gain insights into similar issues from different backgrounds.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

4.0. Presentation

The findings section involves in-depth information about the results of the data

analysis. It details the findings related to each research question in the study by

elaborating on the available results on each research question through a chronological

order of the data collection and analysis processes. First of all, it gives a description of

the findings related to the comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes

on the perceived frequency of learning target language knowledge and practicing

target language skills. Then it provides an extensive account of the comparison of

different computer game genres based on the perceived frequency of learning target

language knowledge and practicing target language skills. This is followed by a

comparison of perceived frequency of learning and practicing target language

knowledge and skills within each genre. After the findings of the questionnaire, the

findings of the observation are first provided from the perspective of the first three

research questions. Then the results are detailed further to provide an extensive outlook

for the activities of target language practicing in games with different game modes and

genres via extracts from the observations to provide further understanding of the

analysis. Finally, the opinions of the participants on computer games and language

learning in games with different game modes and genres are reported thoroughly. The

opinions are accounted both via the analysis and sample participant responses to offer

more profound insights into the opinions of gamer learners of English.

4.1. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes

To find out about the first research question 1 (Is there a significant difference

between single-player and multiplayer computer game modes in terms of (a) learning

target language vocabulary items, (b) learning target language grammar structures, (c)

practicing target language reading, (d) practicing target language listening, (e)

practicing target language writing, (f) practicing target language speaking?), the

responses of the participants who prefer the single-player game mode and multiplayer

game mode were compared with each in each genre to find out about potential

differences in the perceived learning and practicing frequency of target language

knowledge and skills. Mainly, Mann-Whitney U tests were used for comparing the

responses of the participants that prefer single-player and multiplayer game mode on

their perceived learning and practicing frequency of target language knowledge and

skills.

First of all, the median value of the participant responses for the perceived

learning frequency of the meaning, the spelling, and the pronunciation of vocabulary

items were calculated in each genre to find the overall vocabulary learning frequency.

Then, the overall vocabulary learning frequency of the participants who prefer the

single-player game mode and the participants who prefer the multiplayer game mode

were compared with each other in each genre via a Mann-Whitney U test in an effort

to find out whether there was a significant difference between the two. The same

process was carried out for the frequency of grammar learning to understand whether

there was a significant difference between the two game modes in terms of the

perceived learning frequency, as well.

Following the comparisons based on the perceived frequency of vocabulary

learning and grammar learning between single-player and multiplayer game modes,

the perceived reading practice frequency of the participants who prefer the single-

player game mode and multiplayer game mode were compared with each other via a

Mann-Whitney U test in each genre to find whether there exited any significant

difference. This was carried out to uncover whether there was a significant difference

in the perceived practicing frequency of the participants preferring the single-player

game mode and the participants preferring the multiplayer game mode. The same

analysis was conducted on the perceived practice frequency of listening, writing, and

speaking to understand whether there was a significant difference in the practicing of

these skills between the single-player and multiplayer game modes, as well. Any

statistical significance was further analyzed via effect size.

4.1.1. Overall Findings of the Comparison of Single-player and

Multiplayer Game Modes

This section provides a summary of the findings in relation to the first research

question. These results are described in further detail based on each target language

knowledge and skill in the following sections. The findings do not show a significant

difference between single-player and multiplayer game modes with regard to the

frequency of learning grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, the results suggest a

negative answer for research questions 1a and 1b. For the practice frequency of reading

and listening, there is significant difference between single-player and multiplayer

game modes only in the role-playing genre, favoring the single-player game mode.

However, in the other four genres, there is no significant difference. That’s why the

findings also point towards a negative answer for research questions 1c and 1d, as well.

On the other hand, the comparisons between the single-player and the

multiplayer game mode indicate significant differences in terms of the frequency of

writing practice and speaking practice. In the practice frequency of these skills, there

is a significant difference in each genre between the single-player and multiplayer

game modes. According to the findings, gamers who prefer the game multiplayer game

mode are engaged in considerably more writing and speaking practice than those who

prefer the single-player game mode. As a result, the findings of the questionnaire

indicate a positive answer in terms of research questions 1e and 1f.

4.1.2. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based

on Vocabulary Learning

A comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes based on the

frequency of vocabulary learning revealed that the average participant reported a

frequency between sometimes and often in terms of vocabulary learning frequency

regardless of the game mode in all genres (See Figure 12). The highest level of

vocabulary learning frequency was reported in multiplayer adventure games while the

lowest level was reported in single-player simulation games. The highest vocabulary

learning difference between the single-player and multiplayer game mode was in

adventure games, and the lowest difference between the two game modes was in role-

playing games.

Figure 12 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

overall vocabulary learning frequency

A Mann-Whitney U test was carried out to find out whether the frequency of

vocabulary learning between the single-player and multiplayer game modes in each

genre were significantly different from each other. The differences between the single-

player and the multiplayer game modes in none of the genres were found to be

significantly different (U = 1141.5, p = 0.215 for action; U = 1088.5, p = 0.236 for

adventure; U = 1263, p = 0.244 for role-playing; U = 1267, p = 0.123 for strategy; and

U = 1210, p = 0.308 for simulation).

4.1.3. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based

on Grammar Learning

The comparisons between the single-player game mode and multiplayer game

mode based on each genre in terms of the frequency of grammar learning uncovered

that the average participant reported a grammar learning frequency between rarely and

sometimes (See Figure 13). The highest level of grammar learning frequency was

reported in single-player role-playing games. On the other hand, the lowest level of

grammar learning frequency was reported in single-player simulation games. The

largest difference in the grammar learning frequency between the single-player and

multiplayer game modes was in simulation games, whereas the smallest was in role-

playing games.

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Single-player Median

3 4 4 3 3

Multiplayer Median

4 4 4 4 3

Single-player Mean

3.31 3.46 3.6 3.22 2.89

Multiplayer Mean

3.6 3.81 3.33 3.53 3.18

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

Figure 13 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

overall grammar learning frequency

In order to find out whether the statistical differences between single-player

and multiplayer game modes of each genre with regard to the frequency of learning

grammar was significantly different from each other, a Mann-Whitney U test was

conducted. The findings indicated that none of the averages for overall grammar

learning were significantly different from each other (U = 1153, p = 0.243 for action;

U = 1233, p = 0.838 for adventure; U = 1396, p = 0.744 for role-playing; U = 1366, p

= 0.351 for strategy; and U = 1110, p = 0.095 for simulation).

4.1.4. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based

on Reading Practice

The descriptive analysis of the comparison between the single-player and the

multiplayer game modes in terms of the frequency of reading practice revealed that

the average participant reported a reading practice frequency from sometimes to often

in all genres in both single-player and multiplayer game modes (See Figure 14). The

highest level of reading frequency was reported in single-player role-playing games

whereas the lowest level of reading frequency was in single-player simulation games.

The largest difference between the single-player and the multiplayer game mode in

terms of reading practice frequency was in role-playing games. In contrast, the smallest

difference of reading practice frequency was observed in action games.

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Single-player Median

3 3 3 3 2

Multiplayer Median

3 3 3 3 3

Single-player Mean

2.51 2.93 2.97 2.67 2.35

Multiplayer Mean

2.81 2.78 2.88 2.9 2.7

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

Figure 14 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

reading practice frequency

Following the descriptive analysis, inferential analysis was conducted to

understand whether any of the differences in each genre based on single-player and

multiplayer game modes demonstrated statistical significance. The findings indicated

that there was a significant difference only in role-playing games (U = 1044.5, p =

0.010). This statistical significance indicated a small effect size (r = 0.24). The other

differences were not statistically significant (U = 1311, p = 0.901 for action; U = 1177,

p = 0.556 for adventure; U = 1454, p = 0.691 for strategy; and U = 1288, p = 0.606 for

simulation).

4.1.5. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based

on Listening Practice

The analysis of listening practice frequency in single-player and multiplayer

game modes of different genres indicated that the average participant reported a

listening practice frequency from sometimes to often (See Figure 15). The highest

level of listening frequency was reported in multiplayer action games, whereas the

lowest level of listening frequency was reported in single-player simulation games.

The largest difference between single-player and multiplayer game modes in listening

frequency was reported in role-playing games, while the smallest difference was

observed in adventure games.

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Single-player Median

4 4 4 4 3

Multiplayer Median

4 4 4 4 3

Single-player Mean

3.54 3.7 3.97 3.59 3.1

Multiplayer Mean

3.55 3.62 3.26 3.69 3.27

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

Figure 15 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

listening practice frequency

In an effort to find out whether the differences between the single-player and

the multiplayer game modes of each genre demonstrated a significant difference, a

Mann-Whitney U test was carried out for each comparison. The results indicated that

there was a significant difference between single player role-playing games and

multiplayer role-playing games in terms of listening frequency (U = 1020, p = 0.007)

with a small effect size (r = 0.25). The other comparisons did not reveal a significant

difference (U = 1097, p = 0.110 for action; U = 1092, p = 0.249 for adventure; U =

1308, p = 0.200 for strategy; and U = 1265, p = 0.504 for simulation).

4.1.6. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based

on Writing Practice

It was found as a result of the descriptive analysis of the comparison between

single-player game mode and multiplayer game mode of the genres that the average

participant reported a writing practice frequency between rarely and sometimes in all

genres (See Figure 16). The practice frequency was reported to be higher in

multiplayer game mode than the single player game mode in all genres. The highest

level of writing practice was reported in multiplayer adventure games, whereas the

lowest level was reported in single-player simulation games. The largest difference

between single-player and multiplayer game modes with regard to writing frequency

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Single-player Median

4 4 4 3 3

Multiplayer Median

4 3 3 4 3

Single-player Mean

3.8 3.55 3.81 2.9 2.8

Multiplayer Mean

4.28 3.31 3.11 3.2 3.05

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

was in role-playing games. In contrast with this, the smallest difference was observed

in simulation games.

Figure 16 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

writing practice frequency

To uncover whether the descriptive differences displayed statistical

significance, a Mann-Whitney U test was applied for the differences between the

single-player and multiplayer mode in each genre. It was found as a result of the

analysis that all the differences were statistically significant (U = 904, p = 0.005 for

action; U = 708, p < 0.0001 for adventure; U = 925, p = 0.001 for role-playing; U =

1117, p = 0.014 for strategy; and U = 1038, p = 0.030 for simulation). The significance

levels had small effect size for action (r = 0.26), medium effect size for adventure (r =

0.35), medium effect size for role-playing (r = 0.31), small effect size for strategy (r =

0.23), and small effect size for simulation (r = 0.20).

4.1.7. Comparison of Single-player and Multiplayer Game Modes Based

on Speaking Practice

The descriptive comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes with

regard to the frequency of speaking practice revealed that the average participant

reported a speaking practice frequency from rarely to often in terms of speaking

practice frequency (See Figure 17). The speaking practice frequency was considerably

higher in multiplayer game mode compared to single player game mode in all genres.

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Single-player Median

2 2 2 2 2

Multiplayer Median

2.5 3 3 3 2

Single-player Mean

2.02 2.01 2.02 2.24 2

Multiplayer Mean

2.8 3.03 2.95 2.9 2.48

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

The highest level of speaking practice frequency was reported in multiplayer action

games whereas the lowest level of speaking practice frequency was in single-player

simulation games. The largest difference of speaking practice frequency between the

single-player and multiplayer game modes was in action games, whereas the smallest

difference was observed in strategy games.

Figure 17 Comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of

speaking practice frequency

To find out whether the differences between the single-player and multiplayer

game modes displayed any statistical significance, a Mann-Whitney U test was carried

out to compare the game modes in each genre. It was found that all the differences

were statistically significant (U = 603, p < 0.0001 for action; U = 836, p < 0.004 for

adventure; U = 1077, p = 0.020 for role-playing; U = 1140, p = 0.021 for strategy; and

U = 928, p = 0.004 for simulation). The statistical significances demonstrated medium

effect size for action (r = 0.45), small effect size for adventure (r = 0.27), small effect

size for role-playing (r = 0.22), small effect size for strategy (r = 0.21), and small effect

size for simulation (r = 0.27).

4.2. Comparison of the Genres Based on Target Language Knowledge

and Skills

In order to find out about the second research question (Is there a significant

difference among action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and simulation genres in

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Single-player Median

2 2 2 2 2

Multiplayer Median

4 3 3 3 3

Single-player Mean

2.3 2.17 2.33 2.16 2

Multiplayer Mean

3.71 3 3 2.72 2.75

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

terms of: (a) learning target language vocabulary items, (b) learning language grammar

structures, (c) practicing target language reading, (d) practicing target language

listening, (e) practicing target language writing, (f) practicing target language

speaking?), the learning and practicing frequency of each knowledge and skill type in

each genre were compared with each other. Firstly, the overall vocabulary learning

frequency in action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and simulation genres were

compared with each other through a Friedman test to find out whether the difference

was significantly different. Any significant outcome was further analyzed via pairwise

comparisons with a Bonferroni correction through multiple Wilcoxon signed-rank

tests. In addition, effect size and power calculations were conducted for significant

outcomes. Following this, the same procedures were applied to the frequency of

grammar learning, reading practice, listening practice, writing practice, and speaking

practice.

4.2.1. Overall Findings of the Comparison of the Genres Based on Target

Language Knowledge and Skills

This section includes a summary of the findings in relation to the second

research question. These results are explained in further detailed in the following

sections.

The findings indicate significant differences across the genres based on the

frequency of vocabulary learning, grammar learning, reading practice, writing

practice, listening practice, and speaking practice. Pairwise comparisons indicate that

the main reason for the differences in vocabulary learning, grammar learning, and

reading practice stems from lower levels of learning within the simulation genre.

Therefore, the results indicate a positive answer for research questions 2a, 2b, and 2c.

In terms of listening and speaking practice, it was found that the most important

contributor of the significant difference in these skills was the higher levels of practice

frequency in action games. Hence, the findings signify a positive answer for research

questions 2d and 2f, as well. Finally, the pairwise comparison in writing practice

mainly stemmed from higher level of writing practice in the strategy genre and lower

level of practice in the simulation genre. The findings also point to a positive answer

for research question 2e.

4.2.2. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Vocabulary

Learning

A descriptive analysis of the vocabulary learning frequency of the participants

revealed that participants reported an average vocabulary learning frequency between

sometimes and often in the five genres (See Figure 18). The highest level of vocabulary

learning frequency was reported in adventure games whereas the lowest level of

vocabulary learning frequency was reported in simulation games. In all the responses

except for the simulation genre, the median response was often. In the simulation

genre, the median response was sometimes.

Figure 18 Comparison of the genres based on overall vocabulary learning frequency

A Friedman test was conducted to find out whether the differences of overall

vocabulary learning frequency among the genres demonstrated statistical significance.

The results indicated that there was a significant difference among the genres in terms

of vocabulary learning frequency (χ2(4) = 19.026, p = 0.001). An effect size analysis

of this statistical significance through Kendall’s W revealed that the significance had

a small effect size of 0.043. To find out which specific differences caused the

significance, pairwise comparisons were carried out via Wilcoxon signed-rank tests

with Bonferroni correction. The findings indicated that the differences between action

and simulation genres (Z = 3.631, p < 0.0001), adventure and simulation genres (Z =

4.148, p < 0.0001), and role-playing and simulation genres (Z = 3.551, p < 0.0001)

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Median

4 4 4 4 3

Mean

3.51 3.56 3.5 3.39 2.99

Freqeuency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

were statistically significant. The effect sizes were small for the comparison between

action and simulation (r = 0.24), adventure and simulation (r = 27), and role-playing

and simulation (r = 0.23). That’s why, it was concluded that the main reason for the

significant difference resulted from the relatively lower frequency of vocabulary

learning in simulation genre.

4.2.3. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Grammar

Learning

The descriptive statistics of the comparison of genres based on the frequency

of grammar learning showed that the average participant reported a grammar learning

frequency from rarely to sometimes in the five genres (See Figure 19). The highest

frequency of grammar learning was observed in role-playing games while the lowest

frequency was in simulation games. In all the genres, the median response was

sometimes except for the case of simulation games, in which the median response was

rarely.

Figure 19 Comparison of the genres based on overall grammar learning frequency

To understand whether the differences among the groups had statistical

significance, a Friedman test was carried out. The findings of the Friedman test

indicated that there was a significant difference among the genres (χ2(4) = 15.148, p

= 0.004). The effect size of this significance was small, just like the comparison based

on vocabulary learning, according to Kendall’s W (0.034). Pairwise comparisons with

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Median

3 3 3 3 2

Mean

2.72 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.4

Freqeuency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

a Bonferroni correction indicated that there were significant differences between role-

playing and simulation genres (Z = 3.478, p = 0.0001), and strategy and simulation

genres (Z = 2.847, p = 0.004). Both differences had small effect size (r = 0.23 for the

comparison between role-playing and simulation, and r = 0.19 for the comparison

between strategy and simulation). The other pairwise differences were not statistically

significant. It was concluded that, similar to vocabulary learning frequency, the main

difference in grammar learning frequency was also caused by the low frequency level

of simulation games.

4.2.4. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Reading

Practice

The descriptive analysis of reading practice frequency demonstrated that the

participants reported an average reading practice frequency from sometimes to often

in all the genres involved (See Figure 20). The highest level of reading practice

frequency was reported in the role-playing genre. In contrast with this, the lowest level

of reading practice frequency was seen in the simulation genre. Similar to the previous

two analyses, there was a median difference between simulation genre and the other

genres. In action, adventure, role-playing, and strategy genres, the median response

was often, while the median response in the simulation genre was sometimes.

Figure 20 Comparison of the genres based on reading practice frequency

Following the descriptive analysis, a Friedman test was applied to the

comparisons to find out whether the differences displayed statistical significance. The

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Median

4 4 4 4 3

Mean

3.54 3.68 3.7 3.64 3.16

Freqeuency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

findings of the test indicated that the differences were statistically significant (χ2(4) =

32.449, p < 0.001). Effect size analysis based on Kendall’s W indicated that the

significance had a small effect size (W = 0.053). Pairwise comparisons through

Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with a Bonferroni correction revealed that the differences

between action and simulation genres (Z = 2.804, p = 0.005), adventure and simulation

genres (Z = 3.358, p = 0.001), role-playing and simulation genres (Z = 3.590, p <

0.0001), and strategy and simulation genres (Z = 3.371, p = 0.001) were statistically

significant. The comparison between action and simulation genres had small effect

size (r = 0.18), adventure and simulation had small effect size (r = 0.22), role-playing

and simulation had small effect size (r = 0.24), and strategy and simulation had small

effect size (r = 0.22), as well. Similar to the previous evaluations, the main reason for

the statistical significance in reading practice frequency also resulted from low

frequency level in simulation genre.

4.2.5. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Listening

Practice

The descriptive evaluation of the participants’ responses for listening practice

frequency revealed that the average participant reported a listening frequency between

sometimes and often in all genres (See Figure 21). The highest level of listening

practice frequency was reported in the action genre whereas the lowest level was

reported in simulation genre. In action, adventure, and role-playing genres, the median

response to listening practice frequency was often. By contrast, the median response

to listening practice frequency in strategy and simulation genres was sometimes.

Figure 21 Comparison of the genres based on listening practice frequency

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Median

4 4 4 3 3

Mean

4.13 3.48 3.54 3.09 2.92

Freqeuency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

To find out whether the differences among the genres displayed statistical

significance, a Friedman test was carried out. The result of the test indicated that the

differences among the genres were statistically significant (χ2(4) = 70.871, p < 0.001).

This significance had a small effect size based on Kendall’s W (W = 0.160). Following

Friedman’s test, pairwise comparisons were carried out through Wilcoxon signed-rank

tests with a Bonferroni correction. It was found that the listening frequency in the

action genre was significantly higher than all the other genres (Z = 4.785, p < 0.0001

for adventure comparison; Z = 4.043, p < 0.0001 for role-playing comparison; Z =

6.155, p < 0.0001 for strategy comparison; and Z = 4.402, p < 0.0001 for simulation

comparison). The comparison of the action genre had medium effect size with

adventure (r = 0.32), small effect size with role-playing (r = 0.27), medium effect size

with strategy (r = 0.41), and small effect size with simulation (r = 0.29). The responses

to listening frequency in adventure genre was only significantly different than the

simulation genre (Z = 3.560, p < 0.0001) with a small effect size (r = 0.23). Similar to

adventure, role-playing also had significant difference with simulation (Z = 3.892, p <

0.0001) with a small effect size (r = 0.26), but role-playing was also found to be

significantly different than the strategy genre (Z = 2.946, p = 0.003) with a small effect

size (r = 0.19). The simulation and strategy genres did not have significant difference

in terms of listening practice frequency. Based on the pairwise comparisons, it can be

stated that the significant difference among the genres resulted from the higher level

of listening practice frequency in the action genre, and lower level of listening practice

frequency in strategy and simulation genres.

4.2.6. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Writing

Practice

The descriptive analysis of the comparisons of the genres according to the

frequency of writing practice revealed that the average participant reported a writing

practice frequency between rarely to sometimes in all genres (See Figure 22). The

highest level of writing practice was reported in the strategy genre whereas the lowest

level of writing practice was reported in simulation genre. In all the genres, the median

response was rarely. Based on these results, writing practice frequency reports were

the lowest compared to the other skills.

Figure 22 Comparison of the genres based on writing practice frequency

To find out whether there was a significant difference among the genres with

regard to the practice of the writing skill, a Friedman test was carried out. The results

of the analysis indicated that there was a significant difference among the writing

practice frequency levels of the genres (χ2(4) = 10.208, p = 0.037). This significance

had a small effect size based on Kendall’s W (W = 0.023). In an effort to find out

where the differences lied, pairwise comparisons were carried out via Wilcoxon

signed-rank tests with a Bonferroni correction. Pairwise comparisons revealed that

only the difference between the strategy genre and the simulation genre was

statistically significant (Z = 2.866, p = 0.004) with a small effect size (r = 0.19). As a

result, it was concluded that the relatively higher level of writing practice frequency in

the strategy genre and relatively lower level of writing frequency in the simulation

genre was the main cause behind the level of significance in the comparison of the

genres based on writing practice frequency.

4.2.7. Comparison of the Genres Based on the Frequency of Speaking

Practice

When the genres were compared descriptively with regard to the frequency of

speaking practice, it was found that the average participant reported a speaking

frequency between rarely to sometimes (See Figure 23). The highest level of speaking

practice frequency was reported in the action genre, whereas the lowest level of

speaking frequency was reported in the simulation genre. In action genre, the median

response to speaking practice frequency was sometimes. In all the other genres, the

median speaking practice frequency was rarely.

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Median

2 2 2 2 2

Mean

2.55 2.36 2.37 2.61 2.16

Freqeuency (1 = Never, 5 =

Always)

Figure 23 Comparison of the genres based on speaking practice frequency

Following the descriptive analysis, a Friedman test was conducted to find out

whether the difference among the genres was statistically significant. The results of

the analysis showed that there was a significant difference among the groups with

regard to the frequency of speaking practice (χ2(4) = 39.113, p < 0.0001). This

significance had a small effect size based on Kendall’s W (W = 0.088). After the

Friedman test, pairwise comparisons were carried out via a Wilcoxon signed-rank test

to compare each group with one another to find out whether specific pairs caused the

significant outcome of the Friedman test. Results of the analysis indicated that the level

of speaking practice frequency in the action genre was significantly higher than all the

other genres (Z = 5.555, p < 0.0001 for adventure comparison; Z = 4.326, p < 0.0001

for role-playing comparison; Z = 4.394 p < 0.0001 for strategy comparison; and Z =

5.404, p < 0.0001 for simulation comparison). The comparison with adventure had

medium effect size (r = 0.37), small effect size with role-playing (r = 0.29), small effect

size with strategy (r = 0.29), and medium effect size with simulation (r = 0.36). The

other differences between the genres did not display statistical significance. As a result

of the pairwise comparisons, it was concluded that the significance in the Friedman

test resulted mainly from the higher level of speaking practice frequency in the action

genre.

4.3. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types

within Each Genre

In an effort to find out about the third research question (Is there a significant

difference in learning target language knowledge and practicing target language skills

Action Adventure Role-playing Strategy Simulation

Median

3 2 2 2 2

Mean

3.27 2.41 2.58 2.47 2.25

Freqeuency (1 = Never, 5 =

Always)

within the genre of (a) action, (b) adventure, (c) role-playing, (d) strategy, and (e)

simulation?), the learning and practicing frequency of target language knowledge and

skill types were compared in each genre. Firstly, the frequency of vocabulary learning,

grammar learning, reading practice, listening practice, writing practice, and speaking

practice were compared in the action genre. Following this comparison, in case of a

significant outcome, pairwise comparisons were carried out with multiple Wilcoxon

signed-rank tests with a Bonferroni correction. Any statistical significance was further

subject to effect size and power analysis. The same steps were followed for the other

four genres, as well.

4.3.1. Overall Findings of the Comparison of the Target Language

Knowledge and Skill Types Based on Each Genre

This section provides a summary of the findings related to the comparison of

target language knowledge and skill types in each genre. These findings are described

in further detail in the following sections.

The findings indicate a significant difference among the learning and practicing

frequency of target language knowledge and skills in each of action, adventure, role-

playing, strategy, and simulation genres. The pairwise comparisons (15 in total for

each genre) demonstrated that there were significant differences in 11 pairwise

comparisons in the action genre with listening having higher level of practice

frequency than all the other components. Following listening, vocabulary learning and

reading practice were also relatively higher. Grammar learning, writing practice, and

speaking practice had lower frequency. This indicated a positive answer for research

question 3a.

For the other genres, there were higher frequency levels in learning vocabulary,

practicing reading, and practicing listening, and lower frequency levels in learning

grammar, practicing writing, and practicing speaking. Pairwise comparisons revealed

10 significant differences for the adventure genre, 11 for role-playing, 11 for strategy,

and nine for simulation. These results also point to a positive answer for research

questions 3b, 3c, 3d, and 3e.

4.3.2. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types

Based on Action Genre

The descriptive analysis based on the frequency of the learning of target

language knowledge and the practice of target language skills in the action genre

demonstrated that the average participant responded with a learning and practice

frequency of target language knowledge and skills ranging from rarely to often within

the action genre (See Figure 24). The highest frequency of practice was observed in

listening skill whereas the lowest level of practice was seen in the writing skill. The

median response to the learning of vocabulary, and the practicing of reading and

listening skills were often. In comparison with that, the median response to the learning

of grammar and the practicing of the speaking skill within the genre was sometimes.

The median response to the practicing of the writing skill, on the other hand, was found

to be rarely.

Figure 24 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on action genre

In order to find out whether the difference among the learning of target

language knowledge and the practicing of target language skills within the action genre

displayed statistical significance, a Friedman test was carried out. The results of the

test showed that there was a significant difference among the target language

knowledge and skill types with regard to the frequency of learning and practicing

(χ2(5) = 151.083, p < 0.0001). This significance demonstrated a small effect size based

on Kendall’s W (W = 0.272). Following these tests, pairwise comparisons were carried

out via Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to find out whether the difference was caused by

specific pairs (See Table 4). The comparison of the frequency of vocabulary learning

Vocabulary Grammar Reading Listening Writing Speaking

Median

4 3 4 4 2 3

Mean

3.5 2.7 3.54 4.13 2.5 3.27

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 =

Always)

with the other target language knowledge and skill types indicated that there was

significant differences with grammar (Z = 6.415, p < 0.0001) with a medium effect

size (0.43), listening (Z = 5.452, p < 0.0001) with a medium effect size (r = 0.36), and

writing (Z = 5.632, p < 0.0001) with a medium effect size (r = 0.37). The comparison

of frequency of grammar learning indicated that aside from the significant difference

with vocabulary learning indicated previously, it had significant differences with

reading (Z = 5.906, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.39), listening (Z =

7.961, p < 0.0001) with large effect size (r = 0.53), and speaking (Z = 3.710, p <

0.0001) with small effect size (r = 0.24). In reading practice, it was found that there

were significant differences with the listening (Z = 4.796, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.32) and writing (Z = 6.043, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size

(0.40), in addition to the previously mentioned significant differences with the

frequency of vocabulary and grammar learning. The frequency of the listening skill

practice had significant differences with each of vocabulary, grammar, and reading,

which have already been demonstrated above. Listening also had significant difference

with the writing (Z = 7.482, p < 0.0001) with large effect size (r = 0.50) and the

speaking (Z = 5.713, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.38). Finally, the

writing and speaking practice frequency were found to differ significantly from each

other (Z = 4.732, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.31).

Table 4 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on action genre (column

oriented)

Vocab.

Grammar

Reading

Listening

Writing

Speaking

Vocab.

Lower

None

Higher

Lower

None

Grammar

Higher

None

Higher

Reading

None

Lower

Higher

Lower

Listening

Lower

Writing

Higher

None

Higher

Speaking

None

Lower

Higher

Lower

Pairwise comparisons revealed 11 significant outcomes out of 15 total

comparisons. Among these differences, two had large effect size, 9 had medium effect

size, and two had small effect size. Higher practice frequency in listening was certainly

the most striking outcome in the comparison of target language knowledge and skills

in action games. Lower levels of learning and practicing frequency in grammar and

writing were also considerably notable.

4.3.3. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types

Based on Adventure Genre

The analysis of the comparisons of the target language knowledge and skill

types within the adventure genre revealed that the average participant reported a

learning and practice frequency from rarely to often in different knowledge and skill

types (See Figure 25). The highest frequency of practice was observed in the practice

of the reading skill while the lowest practice frequency was reported in the writing

skill. The median response to the learning of vocabulary was often just as the median

response to the practicing of the reading skill and the listening skill was often. The

median response to the frequency learning of grammar was sometimes. In contrast, the

frequency of practicing writing and speaking was observed to be rarely in the

adventure genre.

Figure 25 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on adventure genre:

In an effort to understand whether the differences among the frequency of

learning different target language knowledge and skill types in the adventure genre

displayed statistical significance, a Friedman test was carried out. The findings of the

test indicated that there was a significant difference among the learning and practicing

frequency of the target language knowledge and skill types within the adventure genre

(χ2(5) = 154.741, p < 0.0001). The effect size of this significance was observed to be

small based on Kendall’s W (W = 0.279). Following the Friedman test and the effect

Vocabulary Grammar Reading Listening Writing Speaking

Median

4 3 4 4 2 2

Mean

3.56 2.8 3.68 3.48 2.36 2.41

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

size analysis, pairwise comparisons were carried out by comparing each knowledge

and skill type with one another to find out whether the significant difference resulted

from specific pairs (See Table 5). The comparison of the frequency of learning of

vocabulary displayed significant difference with the frequency of grammar learning

(Z = 6.230, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.41), practicing writing (Z =

6.751, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.45), and speaking (Z = 6.652, p <

0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.44). The comparison of the frequency of

grammar learning showed significant difference with reading (Z = 6.044, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.40), listening (Z = 4.989, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.33), and writing (Z = 3.005, p < 0.0001) with small effect size (r =

0.19), in addition to its significant difference with vocabulary. The comparison of the

frequency of reading skill with the other skill types indicated that it had significant

difference with that of writing (Z = 6.854, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r =

0.46) and speaking (Z = 6.270, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.41) besides

its significant difference with grammar noted earlier. The frequency of listening

practice also demonstrated significant difference with writing (Z = 5.958, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.40) and speaking (Z = 6.043, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.40) just like it was noted to have significant difference with grammar.

The other pairwise comparisons did not demonstrate significant difference with one

another. It was found as a result of pairwise comparisons that the relatively higher

frequency of learning vocabulary, and practicing reading and listening skills, and the

lower level of practice frequency in the learning of grammar and the practicing of

writing and speaking skills in the adventure genre caused the significant difference

among the significant difference among the target language knowledge and skill types.

Table 5 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on adventure genre (column

oriented)

Vocab.

Grammar

Reading

Listening

Writing

Speaking

Vocab.

Lower

None

Lower

Grammar

Higher

Lower

None

Reading

None

Lower

None

Lower

Listening

None

Lower

None

Lower

Writing

Higher

None

Speaking

Higher

None

Higher

None

In adventure genre, pairwise comparisons uncovered 10 significant outcomes

from 15 comparisons in total. Of these differences, nine had medium effect size and

one had small effect size. Higher levels of learning frequency in vocabulary and

practice frequency in reading and listening, and lower levels of practice frequency in

writing and speaking were the most notable outcomes in the pairwise comparisons of

target language knowledge and skills in adventure genre.

4.3.4. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types

Based on Role-playing Genre

The descriptive analysis based on the role-playing genre with regard to the

frequency of learning target language knowledge and practicing target language skills

within the genre showed the average participant response from rarely to often in

different knowledge and skill types (See Figure 26). The highest level of practice was

observed in the reading skill. In contrast with this, the lowest level of practice was

observed in the writing skill. The median response to the frequency of learning

vocabulary and the practicing of the reading and the writing skills was often. Grammar

learning frequency median response was found to be sometimes. On the other hand,

the median response to the practicing of writing and speaking were found to be rarely.

Figure 26 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on role-playing genre

Following descriptive analysis, inferential analysis was carried out via a

Friedman test to find out whether the differences among the knowledge and skill types

Vocabulary Grammar Reading Listening Writing Speaking

Median

4 3 4 4 2 2

Mean

3.5 2.93 3.7 3.54 2.37 2.58

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

100

in terms of the learning and practice frequency displayed a significant difference or

not. Results of the Friedman test revealed that the difference among the knowledge

and skill types was significant (χ2(5) = 114.024, p < 0.0001). This significance was

found to have a small effect size based on Kendall’s W (W = 0.205).

Following this analysis, pairwise comparisons were carried out to compare

each knowledge and skill type with one another to understand whether difference

between specific pairs led to the overall significance (See Table 6). The comparison

of the frequency of learning of vocabulary displayed significant difference with the

frequency of grammar learning (Z = 5.394, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r =

0.37), practicing writing (Z = 6.124, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.41),

and speaking (Z = 5.355, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.35). The

comparison of the frequency of grammar learning showed significant difference with

reading (Z = 5.482, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.36), listening (Z =

4.233, p < 0.0001) with small effect size (r = 0.28), and writing (Z = 3.635, p < 0.0001)

with small effect size (r = 0.24), in addition to its significant difference with

vocabulary. The comparison of the frequency of reading skill with the other skill types

indicated that it had significant difference with that of writing (Z = 6.778, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.45) and speaking (Z = 5.642, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.37) besides its significant difference with grammar noted earlier. The

frequency of listening practice also demonstrated significant difference with writing

(Z = 5.747, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.38) and speaking (Z = 5.537, p

< 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.37) just like it was noted to have significant

difference with grammar.

The other pairwise comparisons did not demonstrate significant difference with

one another. The findings of the pairwise comparisons showed that the overall

significance in the Friedman test originated from relative higher frequency of learning

in vocabulary and practice in reading and listening, compared to a lower level of

learning frequency in learning grammar and practice in writing and speaking. This

indicates that the learning of vocabulary knowledge is more frequent compared to

grammar knowledge, and the practicing of receptive skills is more frequent compared

to productive skills in role-playing games.

101

Table 6 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on role-playing genre (column

oriented)

Vocab.

Grammar

Reading

Listening

Writing

Speaking

Vocab.

Lower

None

Lower

Grammar

Higher

Lower

None

Reading

None

Lower

None

Lower

Listening

None

Lower

None

Lower

Writing

Higher

None

Speaking

Higher

None

Higher

None

In role-playing games, the pairwise comparisons of target language knowledge

and skills unraveled 11 significant differences out of 15 comparisons in total. Eight of

these comparisons demonstrated medium effect size and two demonstrated small

effect size. Similar to adventure games, higher learning frequency in vocabulary and

practice frequency in reading and listening skills, and lower practice frequency in

writing and speaking skills were the most considerable outcomes in role-playing genre.

4.3.5. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types

Based on Strategy Genre

The descriptive evaluation of the differences among the frequency of learning

target language knowledge and practicing target language skills within the strategy

genre indicated an average learning and practice frequency from rarely to often in

different knowledge and skill types (See Figure 27). The highest frequency was

observed in the practice of the reading skill whereas the lowest frequency was seen in

the practicing of the speaking skill. The median response to the frequency of learning

vocabulary and practicing reading was often. On the other hand, the median response

to the frequency of learning of grammar and practicing of the listening skill was

sometimes. Finally, the median response to the frequency of practicing writing and

speaking was observed to be rarely.

To find out whether the differences among the knowledge and skill types

demonstrated a significant difference with regard to learning and practice frequency,

a Friedman test was conducted. The findings of the inferential analysis through the

Freidman test revealed that there was a significant difference among the groups in

terms of the learning and practicing of target language knowledge and skills (χ2(5) =

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111.997, p < 0.0001). This significance level displayed a small effect size based on

Kendall’s W (W = 0.202).

Figure 27 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on strategy genre

Following the overall comparison, pairwise comparisons were carried out via

Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with a Bonferroni correction to compare each knowledge

and skill type with one another to understand whether the overall difference was

caused by the significant differences between specific pairs (See Table 7). Pairwise

comparisons indicated that the difference between the frequency of learning

vocabulary showed a significant difference with that of grammar (Z = 5.294, p <

0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.35), practicing writing (Z = 5.504, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.36) and speaking (Z = 5.798, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.38). The frequency of learning grammar was found to have a

significant difference with the frequency of reading practice (Z = 5.420, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.36) in addition to its difference with vocabulary. The

reading skill, besides its significant difference with the frequency of learning grammar,

was found to have a significant difference with the practicing of listening (Z = 3.871,

p < 0.0001) with small effect size (r = 0.25), writing (Z = 6.565, p < 0.0001) with

medium effect size (r = 0.44), and speaking (Z = 6.307, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.42). The frequency of listening practice was discovered to have a

significant difference with the practice of writing (Z = 3.605, p < 0.0001) with small

effect size (r = 0.24) and speaking (Z = 4.967, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r

Vocabulary Grammar Reading Listening Writing Speaking

Median

4 3 4 3 2 2

Mean

3.39 2.8 3.64 3.09 2.61 2.47

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

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= 0.33) besides its significant difference with the frequency of learning grammar and

the practicing of reading. The other pairwise comparisons did not reveal significant

differences with one another. Based on the comparisons, it was found that the main

reason for the significant difference among the frequency of learning and practicing of

the knowledge and skill types stemmed from the relatively higher levels of learning

vocabulary, and practicing reading and listening skills, and lower levels of learning

grammar, and practicing in writing and speaking skills in the strategy genre.

Table 7 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on strategy genre (column

oriented)

Vocab.

Grammar

Reading

Listening

Writing

Speaking

Vocab.

Lower

None

Lower

Grammar

Higher

Lower

None

Reading

None

Lower

Listening

None

Higher

Lower

Writing

Higher

None

Higher

None

Speaking

Higher

None

Higher

None

The pairwise comparisons uncovered nine significant outcomes from 15

comparisons in the frequency of learning and practicing comparison of target language

knowledge and skills in strategy genre. Of these differences, seven displayed medium

effect size whereas two displayed small effect size. Higher frequency of learning

vocabulary, practicing reading, and practicing listening, and lower frequency of

learning grammar, practicing writing, and practicing speaking were striking outcomes

in the pairwise comparisons within strategy genre.

4.3.6. Comparison of the Target Language Knowledge and Skill Types

Based on Simulation Genre

The descriptive analysis of the frequency of learning and practice in target

language knowledge and skill types showed that the average participant reported a

learning and practice frequency from rarely to sometimes in the simulation genre (See

Figure 28). The highest level of practice frequency was observed in reading whereas

the lowest level was seen in writing. The median response to the learning of vocabulary

and the practicing of the reading and the listening skill was observed as sometimes. In

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contrast with this, the frequency of learning grammar, and the practicing of the writing

and the speaking skill was seen as rarely.

Figure 28 Comparison of the learning and practice frequency of target language

knowledge and skill types based on strategy genre

Following descriptive analysis, inferential analysis was carried out through a

Friedman test in order to find out whether frequency differences in the learning and

practice of target language knowledge and skills reported by the participants

demonstrated a significant difference. The results indicated that there was a significant

difference among the knowledge and skill types with regard to the frequency of

learning and practice of target language knowledge and skills within the simulation

genre (χ2(5) = 101.194, p < 0.0001). This significance level displayed a small effect

size according to Kendall’s W (W = 0.182). After the Friedman test, pairwise

comparisons were conducted with a Bonferroni correction to discover whether the

significance was caused by specific pairs of knowledge and skill types (See Table 8).

The results of the pairwise comparisons revealed that the learning of vocabulary

demonstrated significant difference from the frequency of learning grammar (Z =

4.971, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.33), practicing writing (Z = 5.421, p

< 0.0001) with medium effect size ( r = 0.36) and practicing speaking (Z = 4.928, p <

0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.33). The frequency of learning grammar, in

addition to its difference with vocabulary, was found to have significant difference

Vocabulary Grammar Reading Listening Writing Speaking

Median

3 2 3 3 2 2

Mean

2.9 2.46 3.16 2.92 2.16 2.25

Frequency (1 = Never, 5 = Always)

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with reading (Z = 5.553, p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.37) and listening

(Z = 3.743, p < 0.0001) with small effect size (r = 0.25). The frequency of reading

practice displayed a significant difference with writing practice (Z = 6.145, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.41) and speaking (Z = 5.332, p < 0.0001) with medium

effect size (r = 0.35), besides its significant difference with grammar. Similarly, the

listening skill displayed significant difference with the practice of writing (Z = 5.098,

p < 0.0001) with medium effect size (r = 0.34) and speaking (Z = 5.002, p < 0.0001)

with medium effect size (r = 0.33), in addition to its difference with the practice of

grammar. The other pairwise comparisons were not in significant difference with one

another. The findings of the pairwise comparisons revealed a main cause of relatively

higher levels of learning frequency in vocabulary, and practice frequency in reading

and listening in contrast with relatively lower levels of learning frequency in grammar

and practice frequency in writing and speaking for the significant difference among

the frequency of learning and practice of knowledge and skill types within the

simulation genre.

Table 8 Significance of pairwise comparisons based on simulation genre (column

oriented)

Vocab.

Grammar

Reading

Listening

Writing

Speaking

Vocab.

Lower

None

Lower

Grammar

Higher

None

Reading

None

Lower

None

Lower

Listening

None

Lower

None

Lower

Writing

Higher

None

Higher

None

Speaking

Higher

None

Higher

None

In simulation genre, nine of the pairwise comparisons out of 15 demonstrated

significant outcomes. Of these, eight had medium effect size and one had small effect

size. Higher levels of learning vocabulary, practicing reading, and practicing listening,

and lower levels of learning grammar, practicing writing, and practicing speaking were

the striking outcomes in the pairwise comparison within this genre.

106

4.4. Activities of Language Practicing Observed in Different Computer

Game Modes and Genres

One aim of the observation was to gain deeper insights into the first three

research questions, namely, the comparison of single-player and multiplayer game

modes in terms of the frequency of language learning and practicing, the comparison

of the genres with one another in terms of the frequency of language learning and

practicing, and the comparison of the frequency of learning and practicing target

language knowledge and skill types in each genre. The main aim of the observation

was, on the other hand, to answer the fourth research question, which focused on

finding the type of language learning and practicing activities take place in different

computer game modes and genres. Therefore, the observation helped understand the

frequency of language learning and practicing in different game modes and genres

from a different perspective, and what kind of language learning and practicing

activities gamers are engaged in while playing computer games.

4.4.1. Overview of the Activities of Language Practicing in the Light of

Game Mode Comparison

The observation of streams provided an opportunity to analyze the similarities

and differences between the questionnaire and the observation regarding game mode

comparison. This was firstly related to the first research question, which targeted

finding out whether there was a significant difference between single-player and

multiplayer game modes with regard to the frequency of learning and practicing target

language knowledge and skills. Considering the findings of the observation in the light

of the findings of the questionnaire, it can be stated that they were mostly in line with

one another with regard to the comparison of the game modes.

The findings of the questionnaire previously revealed that there was a

significant difference between single-player and multiplayer game modes in all genres

in terms of the practice frequency of productive skills. According to the findings of the

questionnaire, the participants reported significantly higher practicing frequency for

writing and speaking skills in multiplayer game mode compared to the single-player

game mode. In terms of speaking, this finding was corroborated markedly. The total

speaking practice duration observed in the observation of the streams with multiplayer

game mode was 966 seconds with 451 number of instances. As opposed to this, the

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average speaking practice duration in single-player game mode of the streams was 83

seconds with 33 instances. However, this was not the case for writing. That is, there

was a difference between the game modes in the observation, as well, but this

difference was not at a considerable level. The writing practice duration in multiplayer

games was 23 seconds, with 10 instances. On the other hand, there was no instance of

writing practice in any of the single-player gaming sessions that were observed in the

study.

Another finding of the comparison between single-player and multiplayer

game modes was that the reading and listening practice frequency in single-player role-

playing games was significantly higher than the ones in multiplayer game mode. The

findings of the observation was in line with this finding. In the single-player role-

playing game, there was reading practice for 922 seconds in 69 instance, whereas in

the multiplayer role-playing game, the reading practice lasted for only for 55 seconds

in 14 instances. As can be seen from the figures, the difference was huge. When it

comes to listening, the difference was not this severe, however, it was still at a

considerable level, nonetheless. The duration of listening practice was 774 seconds in

41 instances, while the duration of practice was 451 seconds in 146 instances.

4.4.2. Overview of the Activities of Language Practicing in the Light of

Game Genre Comparison

The findings of the observation were also useful in terms of identifying the

similarities and the differences in the comparison of the genres based on the practicing

of target language skills, which is related to the second research question. Regarding

the findings of the observation in the light of the results of the questionnaire, it can be

stated that findings mostly match one another in this research question, as well.

One of the notable findings that were identified as a result of the comparison

of the genres with each other in the questionnaire was that low levels of reading

practice in simulation genre was the main reason for the significant difference among

the genres with regard to the practicing of reading. These findings of the observation

support this finding. The total reading practice duration was 793 seconds in 98

instances for action games, 412 seconds in 79 instances for adventure games, 977

seconds in 83 instances for role-playing games, and 415 seconds in 27 instances for

strategy games. In contrast, the reading practice duration for the simulation games was

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35 seconds in 12 instances. Based on this, it can be stated that the findings of the

questionnaire and the observation were in line with one another.

Another major finding of the questionnaire for the comparison of the genres

with one another was that the significant outcome of listening and speaking practice

resulted mainly from the higher levels of listening and speaking frequency in action

games. This finding was also corroborated in the observation. The total listening

practice duration was 730 seconds in 206 instances for adventure games, 1225 seconds

in 187 instances for role-playing games, 553seconds in 169 instances for strategy

games, and 274 seconds in 71 instances for simulation games. In contrast with these,

the total listening practice duration was 1502 seconds in 410 instances for action

games, considerably higher than those of other genres. When it comes to speaking, the

total speaking practice duration was 275 seconds in 108 instances in adventure games,

168 seconds in 59 instances in role-playing games, 194 seconds in 102 instances in

strategy games, and 8 seconds in 3 instances for simulation games. As opposed to

these, the total speaking practice duration was 404 seconds in 212 instances in action

games, again at a level considerably higher than those of other genres.

The final major outcome of the questionnaire with regard to the comparison of

genres with one another was that the significant outcome for the practicing of writing

skill resulted from higher levels of practice in strategy games and lower levels in

simulation games. This finding was not supported by the findings of the observation.

There was almost no use of writing in strategy games in the observation with a single

second of practicing duration in total in strategy games in a single instance, and no

instance of writing practice in simulation games. Action games and adventure games

were in line with these with no instances of writing. The highest level of writing

practice occurred in adventure games with 22 seconds in total with 9 instances, which

was also at a negligible level.

4.4.3. Overview of the Activities of Language Practicing in the Light of

Language Skills Comparison

Observation data also enabled an analysis of the similarities and differences in

the comparison of target language skills practice within each genre, which provided a

deeper understanding for research question three.

109

When the differences among the four skills are taken into consideration,

frequency of listening practice was significantly higher than all the other skills in

action games. This was followed by reading, which had higher frequency than the

other skills, writing and speaking. Speaking frequency was higher than writing, which

had lower frequency of practice than all the other language skills. The findings of the

observation completely supported these findings. In action games, the highest duration

of practicing was in listening with 1502 seconds, in 410 instances. This was followed

by reading, with 793 seconds in 98 instances. The duration of practice for speaking

was 404 seconds in 212 instances. Finally, there was no instance for writing practice

in action games. The order of practice frequency reported by the participants in the

questionnaire and the order of practice length in the observation of action games

matched each other exactly.

For all the other genres, there was no significant difference between the

practicing frequency of reading and listening skills. These skills, on the other hand,

were significantly higher than productive skills for each genre. In some cases, there

was no significant difference between writing and speaking based on the responses of

the participants, while in some others there was. There are matching and mismatching

parts between the findings of the questionnaire and the findings of the observation with

regard to these.

In adventure games, the order of frequency of practice from higher to lower

was reading, listening, speaking, and writing based on the findings of the

questionnaire. In the observation, the order was listening, reading, speaking, and

writing. So the only difference in this order was on the comparison of reading and

listening. In adventure games, there was 730 seconds of listening practice in 206

instances, 412 seconds of reading practice in 79 instances, 275 seconds of speaking

practice in 108 instances, and 22 seconds of writing practice in 9 instances. In the

questionnaire, there was no significant difference between reading and listening, and

writing and speaking. However, in the findings of the observation, a notable difference

between these two pairs can be mentioned. Still, both reading and listening have higher

durations of practice compared with the productive skills, which is similar in both data

collection tools. In role-playing games, the same scenario as in action games is at play.

The differences between the questionnaire and the observation are identical

with listening, having higher duration of practice than reading in the observation unlike

the questionnaire, where the outcome is vice versa. There is listening practice for 1225

110

seconds in total in the observation of the role-playing games in 187 instances,

compared to the reading practice length of 977 seconds in 83 instances. However, both

figures are at a high level, which shows similarity. In addition, both figures are higher

than productive skills, which is again similar in both data collection tools. But this is

not the case for the comparison between writing and speaking in the observation.

Speaking practice length accounts for 168 seconds in total in role-playing games in 59

instances, as opposed to no writing practice observed in the observation of this genre.

This is a considerable difference, unlike the findings of the questionnaire.

In strategy genre, the order of practicing frequency according to the findings of

the questionnaire was reading, listening, writing, and speaking from highest to lowest.

In contrast with this, the order of practice length in the observation was listening,

reading, speaking, and writing from highest to lowest. Total duration of listening

practice was 553 seconds in 169 instances, and the total duration of reading practice

was 415 seconds in 27 instances. The findings in both data collection tools are similar

in that they are higher than productive skills. The total duration of speaking is 194

seconds in 102 instances in strategy games, whereas there is only a single-second

single-instance writing practice. This is quite different compared to the findings of the

questionnaire.

Finally, in simulation genre, the order of practice frequency based on the

findings of the questionnaire was reading, listening, speaking, and writing in ascending

order. This was listening, reading, speaking, and writing according to the findings of

the observation. The findings of the questionnaire did not reveal a significant

difference between reading and listening, but the findings of the observation points to

a considerable difference between the two with the total duration of listening being

274 seconds in 71 instances as opposed to the 35 seconds of practice in 12 instances

in reading. However, there is similarity in the outcome of the questionnaire and the

interview when writing and speaking are compared. The questionnaire revealed no

significant difference between the perceived frequency of writing practice and

speaking practice, just like there was only 8 seconds of speaking practice in 3 instances

in the simulation genre in comparison with no instance of writing in simulation games,

both of which are at negligible levels.

111

4.4.4. Activities of Language Practicing Observed in Different Game

Modes and Genres

The fourth research question aimed at finding out the types of language

learning and practicing activities that take place in different game modes and genres.

The findings of the observation provided valuable insights into this point of inquiry.

First of all, no explicit instance of learning vocabulary and grammar was observed in

the observation, which was in contrast with the questionnaire. Potential reasons for

these are discussed as part of the interview findings. On the other hand, when it comes

to the practicing of reading, listening, writing, and speaking, several ways through

which these language skills were used were observed. When the effects of game mode

and genre are considered, it can be stated that game mode had more of an impact on

the type of language practicing carried out in computer games than genre.

The reading activities that took place in the observed gaming sessions were

related with reading subtitles, reading game content, and reading messages. In single-

player games, reading mostly took place via reading subtitles by means such as reading

subtitles of monologues and dialogues of in-game characters, and reading game

content through ways like reading details of items, skills, quests, settings, instructions,

and so on. In multiplayer games, on the other hand, instances for reading were not

many, and they mostly took place via reding messages, such as those sent by other

players. The reading activities across genres were more or less similar with reading

subtitles, content, and messages. Simulation was the only genre that did not involve

all the types of reading activities noted earlier.

The listening activities in single-player games were mostly parallel with

reading activities due to the fact that most listening activities are accompanied by texts,

such as in the case of subtitles. Therefore, listening activities in single-player games

are mostly related to listening to monologues and dialogues of in-game characters and

game content. The listening activities in multiplayer games, on the other hand, were

mostly parallel with speaking activities since they were often in the form of

conversational exchanges. They were relatively shorter in length and higher in

frequency compared to single-player games. The activities of listening in multiplayer

games mostly involved the player listening to other players giving information, asking,

responding, discussing, expressing feelings, explaining, suggesting, warning, joking,

and so on. There was no considerable difference in ways of listening practice across

112

different genres, with almost all including the same types of activities. Similar with

activities of reading, simulation games had the least varied listening instances by

lacking most types of listening involved in the other genres.

Writing was the skill that was practiced the least frequently compared to all

other skills. The little amount of writing practice took place in only two multiplayer

games. These instances involved players giving information, responding, asking, and

expressing feelings. Apart from these, no instances were observed.

Speaking was observed in both game modes in contrast with writing. However,

the speaking practice in multiplayer games was, quite expectedly, considerably higher

and more varied than single-player games. In single player games, the types of

speaking activities that were observed were repetition, reading-aloud, and talking to

in-game characters, namely, they mostly involved the players talking by themselves.

In multiplayer games, on the other hand, speaking was parallel with listening activities,

and they were quite similar since the games required players to listen and talk to one

another with similar purposes. The speaking activities in multiplayer games included

the players giving information, discussing, expressing feelings, explaining, suggesting,

warning, off-topic conversation, asking, responding, and so forth. When it comes to

genre-based differences, the situation was the same with reading and listening.

Simulation games had the least varied speaking activities, and they lacked most types

of speaking practicing means shared by the other genres.

4.4.4.1. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Action Games

The single-player action game that was observed and analyzed as part of the

study featured a streamer playing Call of Duty: Modern Warfare (See Table 9). In the

gaming session, there was a considerable use of the receptive skills. The highest usage

was in listening skill with the player doing listening for 827 seconds in 90 instances,

which accounts for 44 percent of the gaming session. This was followed by the practice

of reading with 793 seconds in 98 instances, which corresponds to 43 percent. The

reading practice mostly accompanied the listening practice in the form of subtitles

provided for the conversations. It can be stated that the average instance of listening

and reading lasted for 9.18 seconds and 8.14 seconds, respectively. There was no usage

of the writing skill in this session, and only a single-second instance of speaking

practice. The use of productive skills was thus negligible.

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Table 9 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player action game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

793

Reading subtitles

Reading subtitles of characters’

radio communication.

403

Reading subtitles of a

conversation between

characters

289

Reading subtitles of a phone

call

Reading subtitles of an in-

game video

Reading English translation of

characters’ communication in

foreign language.

Reading subtitles of an

inaudible radio message.

Listening

827

Listening to

conversations

Listening to characters’ radio

communication.

470

Listening to a conversation

between characters

289

Listening to a phone call

Listening to in-

game content

Listening to an in-game video

Writing

Speaking

Repetition

Repeating a radio

communication line

In terms of reading, the single-overarching category of practicing was reading

subtitles. For almost all the speeches included in the gaming session from

conversations between characters to monologues, there were subtitles. The player read

114

and followed the subtitles in addition to listening to the audio input. An instance to this

is the following conversation between in-game characters which was shown in

subtitles:

Reading subtitles:

Main character: Let’s move.

Hitman 7-1: All Hitman teams, push to your set point.

Hitman 7-2: Roger, on the move.

When it comes to listening, the categories were listening to conversation

between characters and listening to in-game content. The former referred to the

listening of dialogues between characters on radio, on phone, or face-to-face. The latter

corresponds to a monologue in the game, which occurs during the watching of an in-

game video. An example to these is the following conversation between in-game

characters:

Listening to a conversation between in-game characters:

Laswell: Colonel, we may have a problem.

Norris: Too late, Laswell. We’re live…

Laswell: Not until I say so.

The multiplayer action game that was observed involved a streamer playing

Counter Strike: Global Offensive (See Table 10). Listening and speaking were the

skills that were used at a considerable level during this gaming session. The player did

listening for 675 seconds in 320 instances, which corresponds to %37.5 of the gaming

session. Compared to the single-player action game, the duration of listening was

shorter, but the frequency was much higher. As opposed to the 9.18 average duration

of an instance of listening in the single-player action game, there was 2.10 seconds of

average duration of an instance of listening in the multiplayer action game. When it

comes to speaking, the player spoke for 403 seconds in 211 instances, which accounts

for %22.3 of the gaming session. When it comes to speaking, the average duration of

an instance of speaking was 1.9 seconds, a figure close to the average duration of a

listening instance. There was no practicing of the reading skill in the session just like

there was no practicing of writing.

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Table 10 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer action game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

Listening

675

320

Teammates

giving

information

Teammates giving information

about the enemy team

325

153

Teammates explaining what they

are doing

Teammates explaining their

plans

Teammates warning each other

Teammates guessing

information about the enemy

Teammates asking for

confirmation about previous

information

Teammates correcting

misinformation

Teammates

discussing

Teammates discussing a strategy

Teammates suggesting a move

Teammates agreeing with a plan

Teammates making plans

Teammates

expressing

feelings

Teammates complimenting a

nice play

Teammates congratulating each

other for a round won

Teammates encouraging each

other

Teammates expressing

frustration

Teammates getting disappointed

with lost round

Teammates consoling the player

116

Table 10 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Teammates getting surprised

Teammates

requesting

Teammates requesting an action

Teammates asking for

information

Teammates

giving

information

Teammates sharing their

position

Writing

Speaking

403

211

Giving

information

Giving information about enemy

team

132

Giving

information

Explaining present action

Guessing enemy moves

Warning teammates about a

potential danger

Asking for confirmation of

previously given information

Explaining what the enemy

player was doing

Responding to a guess about the

enemy team

Confirming copied message

Requesting

Asking teammates to do

something

Asking for information

Discussing

Suggesting a strategy

Explaining a plan

Discussing a strategy with

teammates

Agreeing with teammates

117

Table 10 (Continued)

In terms of listening, the categories that were identified were listening to

teammates giving information, discussing, expressing feelings, and requesting. Giving

information refers to the speech of the teammates that involve informing teammates

about the movements of enemy players, explaining their own present actions, talking

about what they are planning to do, warning their teammates based on the information

they have about the enemy team, trying to guess what the enemy team might be doing

based on previous information, asking for the confirmation of previously given

information, and correcting misinformation. An example to this is a series of instances

of listening in which teammates are providing information about the enemy team

indicated below. The category teammates discussing refers to the discussion of the

players, mostly when a round ends and a 15-second waiting period starts before the

beginning of the next round, about how they are going to play the next round by talking

about a strategy, suggesting a move, making plans, or agreeing with a plan. An

example to this is the instance below in which teammates are discussing moves.

Teammates expressing feelings is related to the utterances of the teammates in which

they express compliments, congratulations, encouragement, frustration,

disappointment, console, and surprise. Finally, teammates requesting corresponds to

instances where teammates ask other teammates either to do something or to give some

specific information.

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Expressing

feelings

Expressing frustration

Congratulating teammates for

round won

Encouraging teammates

Expressing surprise

Complaining about a bad play of

player’s own

Expressing determination to win

Telling teammates to focus

Complimenting a nice play

Apologizing for bad play

118

Teammates giving information:

A teammate: One down mid.

A teammate: One short.

A teammate: One more short. Two short.

A teammate: Two short, two short, coming.

Teammates discussing:

A teammate: You guys want a boost short? I can boost you short.

Regarding speaking, the categories that were identified were exactly the same

as listening. These were giving information, discussing, expressing feelings, and

requesting. Only this time, the categories referred to the speech uttered by the player

instead of the other players in the team. Examples to these instances are provided

below:

Giving information:

The player: Smoke close short, two smokes.

The player: It is execute incoming.

Discussing:

The player: You want double peek mid? I can peek first with scout. I

will peek from bottom mid.

4.4.4.2. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Adventure Games

The single-player adventure game observation involved a streamer playing The

Walking Dead (See Table 11). Similar to the single-player action game, the skills that

were practiced the most in the single-player adventure game were reading and

listening. The player did reading for 391 seconds in 73 instances, which accounts for

%21.7 of the total gaming session. An average reading instance lasted for 5.35

seconds. In terms of listening, the player did listening for 321 seconds in 53 total

instances, and this figure corresponds to %17.8 of the gaming session. An average

listening instance lasted for 6.05 seconds. Unlike the single-player action game, there

were more independent reading activities in this gaming session that were not

accompanied by listening. No writing practice was observed in the gaming session.

Finally, the player did 49 seconds of speaking in 16 instances, which equals to %2.72

of the gaming session. An average speaking instance lasted for 3.06 seconds. Although

it was at a much lower level compared to receptive skills, speaking was practiced

119

considerably longer in this gaming session compared to the single-player action game

mainly due to instructions and response options.

Table 11 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player adventure

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

391

Reading

subtitles

Reading subtitles of a

conversation between characters

161

Reading subtitles of phone

notifications

Reading different options of

responding to a character

Reading subtitles of radio

communication

Reading subtitles of the

character talking to himself

Reading subtitles of the

character warning others

Reading subtitles of the

character calling out for help

Reading game

content

Reading an instruction

Reading chapter title

Reading settings

Reading game settings

Listening

321

Listening to a

dialogue

Listening to a conversation

between characters

161

Listening to radio

communication

Listening to the character

warning others

Listening to

notifications

Listening to game notifications

120

Table 11 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Listening to the

character

Listening to the character talking

to himself

Listening to the character calling

out for help

Writing

Speaking

Reading aloud

Reading an instruction aloud

Reading different options of

responding to a character aloud

In terms of reading, the categories that were identified were reading subtitles,

reading game content, and reading settings. Reading subtitles, similar to the previous

category in action games, involves the subtitles of any types of speech in the game,

including conversation between characters, phone calls, self-talk, warning others, and

calling for help. Reading game content, on the other hand, includes reading texts

related to the content of the game, including reading different options of responding to

a character when the player needs to make a decision, instructions, and information

regarding chapters of the game. Finally, reading game settings is related to the reading

of options of the game. An example to these are the following:

Reading subtitles:

Officer: Well, I reckon you didn’t do it then.

Reading game content:

Response option 1: Why do you say that?

Response option 2: You know what they say about reckoning.

Response option 3: Does it really matter?

Response option 4: …

With regard to listening, the categories that were identified were listening to a

dialogue, listening to notifications, and listening to the character. Listening to the

dialogues stands for listening practicing that involves listening to conversations

between characters face-to-face or on radio communication. Listening to notifications

is related to listening activities in which the player is informed through phone

121

messages. Finally, listening to the character involves listening to instances of

monologues where the character speaks to himself. Examples to these are the

following:

Listening to a dialogue:

The character: Any of that seem important to you?

Officer: All of it, but that box never shuts up. Sit in this seat and pay too

much attention and you’ll drive yourself crazy.

Listening to the character:

The character: Why the hell did he have his gun out?

Finally, in terms of speaking, the category that was identified was reading

aloud. This category refers to instances where the player either reads an instruction out

loud or options of responding to one of the characters in the game. An example to this

is the following where the player listens to one of the characters and reads the options

to responding this character out loud:

Reading aloud:

Officer: Y’know, I’ve driven a buncha’ fellas down to this prison. Lord

knows how many. Usually is ‘bout now I get the “I didn’t do it.”

Response option 1: And what do you say?

Response option 2: Not from me.

Response option 3: Every time?

Response option 4: …

The multiplayer adventure game that was observed within the study featured a

streamer playing Minecraft (See Table 12). In the stream, the most frequently practiced

language skills were listening and speaking. Listening was practiced for 409 seconds

in 153 instances, which accounted for 22.7 percent of the total gaming session. This

was at a higher level compared to the single-player adventure game. The average

length of a listening instance lasted for 2.67 seconds, which was relatively lower than

the single-player adventure game. The player practiced speaking for 226 seconds in 92

instances, which corresponded to 12.5 percent of the total gaming session. This was

considerably higher compared with the single-player adventure game. The average

speaking duration of a single instance lasted for 2.45 seconds, which was close to the

single-player action game. When it comes to reading, there is a crucial difference

between the two game modes. In the multiplayer adventure game reading was

practiced only for 21 seconds in 6 instances, which accounted for just 1.1 percent of

122

the overall gaming session. Finally, in contrast with the single-player adventure game

where there was no writing practice, there was writing practice for 22 seconds in 9

instances in the multiplayer adventure game. However, this only accounted for 1.2

percent of the total gaming session, which was significantly lower compared to the

practicing of other skills.

Table 12 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer adventure

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

messages

A player giving information

A player calling for help

Reading game

content

Reading an in-game note

Reading game notifications

Listening

409

153

Players asking

A player asking a question

104

A player asking for a move

A player asking the other players

to do something

A player asking other players to

wait

A player asking the player to do

something

Players

explaining

A player explaining a situation

A player expressing the need to

do something

A player talking about a plan

A player providing instructions

for something

A player explaining a possibility

Players giving

information

A player giving information

A player talking about a problem

A player warning the other

players

123

Table 12 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

A player making a prediction

A player pointing out a location

A player talking about a

previous experience

A player talking about a

similarity

Players

responding

A player replying a question by

the player

A player appreciating a

suggestion

A player responding to a

suggestion by the player

Off-topic

conversation

A player talking about a movie

A player giving reference to a

different game

Players joking

A player making a joke

Players

expressing

feelings

A player expressing excitement

A player expressing thanks

A player making an exclamation

A player showing good will

A player expressing worry

A player expressing a surprise

A player expressing relief

A player expressing disgust

A player expressing pleasure

Players refusing

A player declining a request

from the other players

124

Table 12 Continued

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Writing

Giving

information

Giving information to other

players

Asking

Asking other players to do

something

Responding

Responding to a question by

another player

Speaking

226

Asking

Asking a question

Asking the other players to do

something

Asking another player to do

something

Asking the other players not to

do something

Asking for clarification

Responding

Responding to a question

Suggesting

Making a suggestion

Giving

information

Giving information to other

players

Making a guess

Talking about a difference

Warning other players

Confirming another player’s

information

Pointing out a location

Explaining

Explaining a situation

Explaining a plan

Explaining a situation

125

Table 12 Continued

In terms of reading, the categories that were identified were reading messages

and reading game content. Reading messages refers to instances where the player read

messages sent by other players through chat box. Reading game content involves

instances where the player read notes within the game.

With regard to listening, the categories that were identified were listening to

teammates asking, explaining, giving information, making a suggestion, responding,

off-topic conversation, joking, expressing feelings, and refusing. The category asking

refers to instances where the player listens to other players to perform specific actions.

Explaining indicates situations where players explain certain matters, plans,

possibilities, or instructions. Giving information denotes cases where players provide

information by noting problems, warnings, predictions, locations, and experiences.

Making a suggestion indicates cases where players propose certain actions to other

players to complete certain tasks. Responding refers to situations in which players

respond to questions or suggestions by the player or other players in the game. Off-

topic conversation indicates cases where players talk about things not directly related

to the game such as movies or references to other games. Joking denotes instances

where players joke about something. Expressing feelings corresponds to players

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Explaining an upcoming move

Off-topic

conversation

Responding to a reference to a

game

Talking about a movie

Expressing

feelings

Thanking another player

Complaining about something

Comforting a player

Expressing frustration

Saying sorry

Getting disappointed

Wishing good luck

Expressing pleasure

Self-talk

The player talking to himself

126

showing their emotions such as excitement, thanks, exclamation, good will, worry,

surprise, relief, disgust, and pleasure. Finally, refusing refers to situations where

players decline a certain request. Some examples to these are indicated below:

Expressing feelings:

A player: OK. What’s the mission today?

The player: We got some locations to go to. That’s what I’m gonna

discuss in a second.

Responding:

The player: The new stations, you found levers, right?

A player: Yes, they are underground.

When it comes to writing, the categories that were identified were giving

information, asking, responding. These categories had same definitions as the ones

that were shared under the categories in the practicing of listening. The difference is

that instead of receiving information, questions, or responses from the teammates, the

player gives information, asks questions, or responds to questions by using the chat-

box.

In terms of speaking, the categories that were identified as a result of the

analysis were asking, responding, suggesting, giving information, explaining, off-topic

conversation, expressing feelings, and self-talk. Most of the categories in the practice

of speaking had same labels as the ones in the listening that were mentioned

previously. The difference is these refer to cases where the speaker is the one that talks

instead of the teammates. The only different category in speaking was self-talk, which

refers to instances where the player talks to himself. Some notable examples for the

categories in speaking include the following:

Asking:

The player: Wait, uh, do you know what a potion of golem does?

Giving information:

The player: OK. This one is unused. I guess I’ll pull it.

4.4.4.3. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Role-playing Games

The single-player role-playing game that was observed and analyzed as part of

the study featured a streamer playing The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt (See Table 13).

The skills that were practiced the most in this gaming session were reading and

listening. Reading was practiced for 922 seconds in 69 instances, which accounts for

127

%51.2 of the gaming session. This figure was the highest reading practice length in all

the games that were observed. An average reading instances lasted for 13.36 seconds.

Listening practice length in the gaming session was 774 in 41 instances, which

corresponds to %43 of the session. An average listening practice instance lasted for

18.87 seconds. The reading and listening durations of average instances in the single-

player role-playing game was considerably higher than the other game modes and

genres. There was no instance of writing that was observed in this session. Finally,

speaking was practiced for 31 seconds in 15 instances, which corresponded to a

negligible percentage of 1.72 of the overall gaming session.

Table 13 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player role-playing

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

922

Reading

subtitles

Reading subtitles of a

conversation between characters

719

Reading subtitles of a character

narrating events in a cutscene

Reading a speech bubble

Reading subtitles of the

character speaking to himself

Reading game

content

Reading different options of

responding to a character

Reading details of an item

Reading a quest

Reading details of a skill

Reading information about

locations on a map

Reading information about a

possible action

Listening

774

Listening to a

dialogue

Listening to a conversation

between characters

719

128

Table 13 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Listening to a

monologue

Listening to a character narrating

events in a cutscene

Listening to a character speaking

Listening to the character

speaking to himself

Writing

Speaking

Reading-aloud

Reading a response to a

character out loud

Greeting

Saying hello to a character

Saying goodbye to a character

Asking

Asking a question to a character

Apologizing

Saying sorry to a character

Accepting

Accepting a quest

The categories identified as a result of the analysis in terms of reading were

reading game content and reading subtitles. Bearing similarities to the categories that

were noted before, reading game content refers to instances of reading where the player

reads options to respond to a character by making a decision, reading details of an

item, reading a quest, reading details of a skill, and reading information regarding a

potential action, while reading subtitles refers to instances where the speech of specific

characters are shown in subtitles in dialogues, in narrations of in-game characters, in

instances where the character talks to himself, or in cases where the speech of less

important characters are shown in speech bubbles. Examples to these are shown below:

Reading subtitles:

Geralt: What’s the ruckus about.

Dandelion: Polly and her half-brained fiancé – they are fighting. She’s

the only one in this town who knows anything about choreography…

and that lummox won’t let her work for me.

129

Reading game content:

Dandelion: Wait, do we have to destroy her house? She keeps a spare

key around somewhere.

Response option 1: Let’s find the key.

Response option 2: How do you know about this spare key?

In listening, the categories that were identified were listening to a dialogue and

listening to a monologue. Listening to a dialogue, similar to the earlier category that

was noted, involves the player listening to conversations between characters, mainly

between the main character and other important characters. Listening to a monologue,

on the other hand, includes instances where the player listens to monologues, either

through the self-talk of the main character, or through the speeches of important or

trivial characters. Examples to these are the following:

Listening to a monologue:

Dandelion: But finding me proved no simple task, for having fallen

afoul of Novigrad’s underworld bosses, I’d disappeared. Yet, Geralt

soon discovered my whereabouts – a cell in the dungeon of the Temple

Guard…

Listening to a dialogue:

Nidas: A witcher? Oh! Here about the notice, perchance?

Geralt: Not quite… but what’s it about? I hear right – you are going on

some voyage, need a companion?

Finally, in terms of speaking, the categories that were identified were reading-

aloud, greeting, asking, apologizing, and accepting. Similar to the situation in action

games, reading-aloud corresponds to acts of speaking where the player reads one or

more different options to responding to different characters and situations. The

categories of greeting, asking, apologizing, and accepting, are similar to each other in

the manner of their creation, since they happen when the player responds to or directly

speaks to in-game characters by saying hello, asking a question without expecting a

response, apologizing for disturbing them, and accepting their offers. Examples to

these are the following:

Reading aloud:

Dandelion: Premier’ll have the audience on their feet – on their knees

– both at the same time!

130

Response option 1: When’s the grand opening?

Response option 2: It’s not Rosemary and Thyme anymore?

Response option 3: What about choreography?

The multiplayer role-playing game that was observed and analyzed in the study

involved a streamer playing World of Warcraft (See Table 14). Similar to the previous

multiplayer games, the skills that were practiced the most in multiplayer game mode

were listening and speaking. The player did listening for 451 seconds in 146 instances,

which accounts for %25.05 of the total gaming session. An average listening instance

lasted for 3.08 seconds, which was considerably shorter than a single listening instance

duration of 18.87 in the single-player game mode. This situation is repetitive across

other genres between single-player and multiplayer game modes. Speaking was

practiced for 137 seconds in 44 instances, which corresponds to %7.61 of the total

gaming duration. An average speaking instance lasted for 3.11 seconds. Reading was

practiced for 55 seconds in 14 instances in the gaming session, which equals to a

relatively negligible 3.05 percent of the total gaming session. The lower levels of

reading practice compared to listening and speaking were also observed in other genres

under multiplayer game mode. In writing, no practicing was observed. This was also

similar to the previous genres as writing practice has always been at a lower level

compared to the other skills.

Table 14 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer role-playing

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

subtitles

A speech bubble of an in-game

character speaking

Reading game

content

In-game notification

Listening

451

146

Players asking

A player asking teammates to do

something

168

A player asking teammates not

to do something

A player asking a question

131

Table 14 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Listening to an

in-game

character

An in-game character speaking

Players

suggesting

A player suggesting an action

Players

complaining

A player complaining about

something

Players giving

information

A player giving information

Players

expressing a

need

A player expressing a need to do

something

Players

explaining

A player explaining a situation

A player explaining a strategy

A player explaining an

upcoming action

Players warning

A player warning other players

Players

expressing

feelings

A player appreciating an action

A player thanking other players

A player comforting other

players

Players

responding

A player responding to another

player

Players making

a joke

A player making a joke

Writing

Speaking

137

Informing

Giving information

Informing

Expressing a need

Expressing

feelings

Encouraging teammates

Apologizing

132

Table 14 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Pitying a player

Appreciating an action

Thanking

Complaining about something

Congratulating players

Explaining

Explaining a situation

Asking

Asking a question

Asking the other players to do

something

In reading, the categories that were identified were reading subtitles and

reading game content. The former corresponded to instances where the player was

confronted with speech bubbles of in-game characters’ speech, whereas the latter was

about reading in-game notifications. An example to these is the following:

Reading subtitles:

Kalecgos: Aggh!! No longer will I be a slave to Malygos. Challenge me

and be destroyed.

Reading game content:

Notification: You have died. Release to the nearest graveyard?

Option 1: Release spirit

Option 2: Use Soulstone

In terms of listening, the categories that were identified were listening to an in-

game character, and listening to teammates asking, suggesting, complaining, giving

information, expressing a need, explaining, warning, expressing feelings, responding,

and making a joke. Listening to an in-game character indicates instances where the

player listens to the voice lines of in-game characters. The other categories were

related to listening to the players in the team. Asking refers to cases where the

teammates ask specific questions, suggesting is related to instances where the players

suggest certain moves, complaining pertains to situations where the players indicate

their dislike for certain moves, giving information is about the players sharing

133

information, expressing a need corresponds to cases where the players point out to a

necessary action, explaining relates to cases were the players explain their actions or

moves, warning indicates situations where the players point out caution for certain

actions or outcomes, expressing feelings is related to situations where players share

their emotions, responding is related to cases where the players answer or react to

questions or statements, and making a joke is about players telling a joke. Examples

to these instances are the following:

Listening to an in-game character:

Brutallus: Another day, another glorious battle!

Explaining:

A player: I’ll probably stomp, err, taunt after stomp.

Another player: Yeah, you taunt after stomp, yeah.

In speaking, the categories that were identified were informing, expressing

feelings, and asking. The category informing relates to instances where the player

provides information to other players by pointing out specific incidents in the game.

The category expressing feelings is about situations in which the player displays

certain acts such as apologizing, pitying, appreciating an action, thanking,

complaining, or congratulating players in the team. Finally, the category asking

indicates cases where the player either asks questions to learn about something or asks

teammates to perform certain actions.

4.4.4.4. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Strategy Games

The observation and analysis of the single-player strategy game focused on a

streamer playing Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition (See Table 15). Like the

previous single-player games, the most frequently practiced language skills in this

gaming session were reading and listening. The streamer did reading for 407 seconds

in 24 instances. This practicing accounted for %22.6 of the total gaming session. An

average instance of reading lasted for 16.95 seconds. Listening was practiced for 246

seconds in 14 different instances, which corresponds to %13.6 of the total gaming

duration. An average act of listening 17.57 seconds. The single-player strategy game

was more similar to the single-player adventure and single player role-playing game

in the proportions of practice for reading and listening compared to the action game.

No writing practice was observed in the gaming session. When it comes to speaking,

only a two-second single instance was observed.

134

Table 15 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player strategy

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

407

Reading

subtitles

Text of an in-game character’s

speech

Reading game

content

Scout report

Follow-up story of a mission

Background story of a mission

Hints of a mission

Objectives of a mission

Campaign notifications

Re-reading

Re-reading previous information

Listening

246

Listening to the

characters

In-game character speaking

Listening to the

story

Follow-up story of a mission

Background story of a mission

Writing

Speaking

Responding

Responding to in-game

characters

In reading, the categories that were identified as a result of the analysis were

reading subtitles and reading game content. Reading subtitles referred to instances

where the player was confronted with texts of in-game characters’ speech, but this was

mostly in the form of speech bubbles instead of subtitles at the bottom of the screen

unlike previous single-player games. Reading game content, on the other hand,

referred to instances of reading about the background story and follow-up story of

missions, certain reports that inform the player about the enemy, notifications related

to the campaign, hints of a mission, and re-reading previously-given information about

the mission at hand. Examples to these are the following:

Reading game content:

135

Narrator: In a matter of days, Joan had crushed the combined English

and Burgundian forces at Orleans; and now, for a year, she had

campaigned with the Armagnac army, bringing it victory after victory.

Only recently had she suffered a setback, as her forces failed to take

Paris from the English.

Reading subtitles:

Phillip the Good: Choisy is well-fortified, but the town’s castle is no

match for our artillery! Prepare the cannons!

In terms of listening, the categories that were identified were listening to the

characters and listening to the story. Listening to the characters refers to situations

where the player listens to in-game characters giving notifications or information

during the mission. Listening to the story, on the other hand, corresponds to cases

where the player listens to the background story of a mission or the follow-up incidents

of the storyline. Examples to these include the following:

Listening to the characters:

Burgundian soldier: The duke has been wounded! We must continue the

fight without him while he recovers.

Listening to the story:

Narrator: It was late at night when the soldiers brought Joan to Philip.

Calmly, he instructed all of us advisors to leave his tent. As soon as they

were alone, La Pucelle began berating the duke to his face.

The multiplayer strategy game that was observed and analyzed as part of the

present study involved a streamer playing League of Legends (See Table 16). Like the

other multiplayer games, the most frequently practiced language skills in this gaming

session were listening and speaking. Listening was practiced in this gaming session

for 307 seconds in 155 instances, and this accounted for 17.05 percent of the overall

gaming session. An average instance of listening lasted for 1.98 seconds. This was

considerably lower than the average listening duration of 17.57 seconds in the single-

player strategy game, just like the previous comparisons of average listening duration

instances between the single-player and multiplayer game modes. Speaking was

practiced for 192 seconds in 101 instances, which corresponded to 10.66 percent of

the total gaming duration. An average instance of speaking was 1.9 seconds, markedly

short just like the instances of listening. When it comes to the practice of reading and

136

writing, it can be stated that these were at a trivial level. Reading was practiced for 8

seconds in 3 instances, which accounts for 0.44 percent of the gaming session, and

writing was practiced for a single second with a single instance, which corresponds to

a mere 0.05 percent of the total gaming duration.

Table 16 Instances of language practicing observed in the multiplayer strategy game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

messages

An enemy player giving

information

Enemy players offering thanks

for the game

Teammates offering thanks for

the game

Listening

307

155

Teammates

giving

information

A teammate giving information

107

Teammates

explaining

A teammate explaining present

action

A teammate explaining a plan

A teammate talking about a

possibility

Teammates

asking

A teammate asking a question

A teammate asking teammates

not to do something

A teammate asking teammates to

do something

Teammates

suggesting

A teammate suggesting a move

Teammates

expressing

feelings

A teammate comforting

teammates

A teammate apologizing

137

Table 16 (Continued)

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

A teammate expressing surprise

A teammate encouraging

teammates

A teammate praising an action

Teammates

responding

A teammate responding to a

question by another teammate

Writing

Expressing

feelings

Offering thanks for the game

Speaking

192

101

Giving

information

Giving information

Writing

Making a prediction

Suggesting

Suggesting a move

Explaining

Explaining a plan

Expressing a need

Explaining a situation

Giving

information

Talking about a possibility

Asking

Explaining

Asking a question

Asking teammates to do

something

Explaining present action

Expressing

feelings

Comforting teammates

Asking

Praising an action

Expressing surprise

Explaining

Encouraging teammates

Responding

Responding to a question by a

teammate

138

In terms of reading, the category that was identified was reading messages.

This category refers to instances where the player reads messages sent by the players

in the enemy team or teammates. An example to this is the following where the enemy

player sends a message to tell the other team that there is a need for readjustment in

the settings:

Reading messages:

An enemy player: Settings gg

When it comes to listening, the categories that were identified were listening

to teammates giving information, explaining, asking, suggesting, expressing feelings,

responding, and warning. Similar to the previously identified categories, giving

information is related to cases where teammates share information with the other

players in the team, explaining is about situations where teammates describe their

actions, a plan, or a need, asking denotes situations where the players ask questions to

the teammates, responding refers to instances where teammates respond to questions

or statements by the player or by other teammates, and warning indicates cases where

the players point out dangers in the game. Examples to these are the following:

Asking:

A teammate: He flashed? Awesome, if he did.

Another teammate: I’m pretty sure he flashed.

Giving information:

A teammate: He’s gonna base after this wave, probably.

In terms of writing, the only category was expressing feelings, which denotes

a situation where the player expresses thanks for the game to both teams.

When it comes to speaking, the categories that were identified were giving

information, suggesting, explaining, asking, expressing feelings, and responding.

Giving information demonstrates cases where the player shares information about the

enemy team, talks about a possibility, and makes predictions based on the actions of

the enemy. Suggesting shows situations where the player puts forward certain moves

that can be carried out by the team. Asking denotes situations where the player asks

certain questions to team members. Expressing feelings is related to cases where the

player comforts teammates, encourages teammates, demonstrates surprise, and praises

an action. Finally, responding is about situation where the player responds to

statements or questions by team members. Examples to these are the following:

Giving information:

139

The player: Lee Sin could be behind them.

Explaining:

The player: I’ll just, I’ll just force his flash. Ok, nice, nice.

4.4.4.5. Types of Language Practicing Observed in Simulation Games

The single-player simulation game that was observed and analyzed featured a

streamer playing Euro Truck Simulator 2 (See Table 17). The only skill that was

practiced in this gaming session was reading, which was practiced for 25 seconds in 9

instances, which accounted for 1.38 of the total gaming session. An average reading

instance lasted for 2.77 seconds. There was no instance of practicing in listening,

writing, and speaking in the session.

Table 17 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player simulation

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

Reading game

content

Reading damage report

Reading options

Reading fuel report

Reading assistance report

Reading messages

Reading notifications

Listening

Writing

Speaking

The only category that was identified as a result of the analysis is reading game

content. This category refers to instances where the player was exposed to texts related

to damage report, game options, fuel report, assistance report, messages, and

notifications. Examples include the following:

Reading game content:

Info: There are no short messages.

Tollgate: Start of toll road. Keep the ticket. Press the following key:

The multiplayer simulation game that was subject to observation and analysis

within the study involved a streamer playing FIFA 22 (See Table 18). The only skill

that was practiced at a considerable level in this gaming session was listening. It was

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practiced for 274 seconds in 71 instances, which accounted for 15.22 percent of the

total gaming session. An average instance of listening lasted for 3.85 seconds. Reading

and speaking were practiced at a trivial level in the gaming session. The former was

practiced for 10 seconds in three instances while the latter was practiced for 8 seconds

in three instances. There was no practice of the writing skill in this session.

Table 18 Instances of language practicing observed in the single-player simulation

game

Skill/Category

Code

Duration (sec)

Frequency

Reading

Reading game

content

Game notifications

Listening

274

Listening to

speaker and

commentator

Speaker narrating the game

191

Commentators’ remarks

Writing

Speaking

Talking to players

Talking to players in the

team

In reading, the category that was identified was reading game content. This

involved situations when the player read notifications about the game.

In listening, the category that was identified was listening to the speaker and

the commentator. This was about situations where the player listened to the narrations

of the speaker and the remarks of the commentator while playing the game. Examples

to these include the following:

Listening to the speaker and the commentator:

Speaker: Well, they won the ball back quickly, and how well the keeper

did!

Commentator: Well, that’s just exceptional. He reacted so quickly

there.

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In speaking, the category that was identified was talking to players in the team.

This refers to cases where the player talked to footballers in the team in a unidirectional

way.

4.5. Opinions of Gamer Learners of English Regarding Language

Learning in Different Game Modes and Genres

The interview was conducted to have deeper insights into the first four research

questions by answering the fifth research question, which targeted at uncovering the

opinions of the participants regarding language learning in different game modes and

genres. The themes that were uncovered were used to interpret the findings related to

the previous findings a deeper level. In addition to these, the findings of the interview

also provided an understanding of how gamer language learners approach computer

games and language learning.

4.5.1. Overview of Interview Findings

Six main themes emerged as a result of the interview and 19 categories were

identified under these themes (see Figure 29 for an overview of themes and categories,

and Appendix D for detailed information about themes, categories, and codes). These

are explained and exemplified in detail in subsequent sub-headings. The themes

provided an overall understanding of the participants’ opinions on various aspects of

computer games and language learning. The opinions are further detailed under the

categories involved in them, which often divide the main opinions with different

directions.

The first theme was opportunities provided by computer games for language

learning. This theme pointed out the advantages of computer games for language

learning. The categories identified under this theme were exposure to authentic

content, communication with other players, learning target language knowledge, and

improvement in target language skills. The ideas stated by the participants indicate that

computer games provide several opportunities for learners not only in getting exposed

to target language content, but also in enabling them to use the target language actively

through communication. These opportunities appear to be the main reasons for

relatively higher levels of learning and practicing observed in certain game modes and

genres.

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Figure 29 Overview of themes and categories

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The second theme that was uncovered in the analysis was limitations of

computer games for language learning. This theme highlighted certain challenges

experienced in specific computer game modes and genres with regard to language

learning. The categories uncovered under this theme were game-related issues and

player-related issues. The findings demonstrate that certain features of games can

inhibit specific aspects of language learning and practicing, and some habits of gamers

may also lead to decreased efficiency in language learning and practicing while

playing computer games. Some of these challenges seem to be the reasons for the

relatively lower levels of learning and practicing in specific game modes and genres.

The third theme uncovered was ways of language learning and practicing in

computer games, which involves various ways through which language is learned and

practiced in different game modes and genres. The categories under this theme were

ways of vocabulary learning, ways of grammar learning, ways of reading practice,

ways of listening practice, ways of writing practice, and ways of speaking practice.

The findings indicated various ways of learning and practicing English experienced by

gamer learners of English. These findings were mostly in line with the results of the

observation.

The fourth theme identified in the analysis was opinions about the previous

findings of the study. This theme involved the points on which participants agreed and

disagreed with the previous findings of the study and put forward potential reasons for

the outcomes. The categories under this theme were agreement and disagreement with

the previous findings and reasons for the previous findings. This theme showed that

participants mostly had agreement with the results of the questionnaire and the

observation by pointing at various reasons for the outcomes. These outcomes provided

implications about potential causes of the findings.

The fifth theme of the analysis was suggestions for gamer language learners,

which involved the suggestions of the participants to gamer language learners to

increase the effectiveness of language learning and practicing in computer games. The

categories under this theme were adopting a mindset of learning and having fun,

optimizing gaming habits for language learning and using external sources. The

opinions of the participants uncovered some key points of getting an increased benefit

from computer games for language learning. These suggestions might hold the key for

the improvement of language learning in computer games for gamer language learners.

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The final theme of the analysis was expectations of gamer language learners

from computer games. This theme included what gamer learners of English can expect

from games to get more benefit from computer games for language learning. The

categories under this theme included feature-related expectations and content-related

expectations. The participants believe that certain gameplay features and language

content in games can be optimized for increased effectiveness in computer games and

language learning. These expectations might especially provide directions for game

developers for attracting more non-native English speakers to their games.

4.5.2. Opportunities Provided by Computer Games for Language

Learning

One of the main themes that was uncovered as a result of the qualitative

analysis was opportunities provided by computer games for language learning. This

theme denotes the benefits offered by computer games with different modes and genres

for language learning and practicing. The theme was created with the combination of

four main categories. These were exposure to authentic content, communication with

other players, learning target language knowledge, and improvement in target

language skills. Respectively, the categories relate to the usefulness of computer

games with regard to getting exposed to authentic content while playing computer

games, getting in touch with other players in meaningful communication

environments, learning and using vocabulary items and grammar structures, and

practicing and enhancing target language skills by using them actively. The opinions

of the participants did not differ considerably based on genre, but game mode

preferences seem to have a substantial influence on the advantages focused on by the

participants of the study. While players that prefer the single-player game mode focus

on the exposure to target language content and learning of target language knowledge

and computer games, players that prefer the multiplayer game mode seems to dwell

more on opportunities for communication and the development of target language

skills in computer games.

The first category under the theme opportunities provided by computer games

for language learning was exposure to authentic content. To make it more specific,

this category is about the exposure of players to various content in computer games

such as the story of the game, quests that must be or can be completed as part of the

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story, cutscenes that are involved in specific parts of the game in which the player is

provided with prologues, epilogues, or interludes, dialogues that can take place among

the characters all along the storyline, items that are used by players, and descriptions

that are often provided to guide the player through the game. The codes in this category

specifically come from players that prefer the single-player game mode. Two examples

to these are the following:

Single-player action game respondent: As you may know, single-player

action games contain a story which is supported with cutscenes and in-

game dialogues between characters.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: The games have a special

place in language teaching today. The reason for this is intense in RPG

games. Especially because the storytelling is strong and character can

interact and socialize with other characters in the game, it's important

for the player to understand. The content of the quest for the

progression of the story. The player has to follow the story pieces to

understand the world and story in which the games take place, and

being able to interact and dialogue a lot of Latin RPG Games has an

important place for the player to development that language.

Another category under this theme is learning target language knowledge,

which, unlike the previous category, is not solely comprised of expressions provided

by participants that prefer the single-player game mode, but still is mostly comprised

of expressions by them. This category relates to the advantages of computer games for

learning or improving target language knowledge by learning vocabulary items such

as specific terms or verbs, learning and using idioms, improving pronunciation, getting

known to different accents of English, learning grammar structures, learning sentence

structures, developing and accuracy. The learning of vocabulary via different means

and from distinct aspects is by far the most important and repetitive opinion among

the responses of the participants.

Single-player action game respondent: I'll give some examples from

Call of Duty in terms of language learning. As you may know, Call of

Duty is a military game, and everyone may learn military terms, lots of

military terms, such as maybe military ranks, soldier types etc.

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Single-player strategy game respondent: If you are playing single

player, you can also check the vocabulary by pausing the game, like

you wonder, well what this word means.

Single-player simulation game respondent: OK, simulation games

generally focuses on a certain thing a certain subject. For example,

Euro Truck Simulator focuses on driving a truck and The Sims is a

simulation of a person's life. So, since these are focused on a certain

subject, it’s good for learning vocabulary about that specific subject.

Yeah, I think this is the biggest advantage of single-player simulation

games.

Although it isn’t as dominant as vocabulary among the responses, the learning

and improvement of grammar via being exposed to sentence structures or having to

use accurate sentences also has an important place in the responses of the participants.

The participants indicate that learning grammar structures, getting more information

about sentence structure, and using accurate language are important advantages of

computer games. Some expressions from the players include the following:

Single-player adventure game respondent: When you look it up, the

vocabulary unknown vocabulary, you also familiarize with, with the

sentence structures. I mean the written aspect of the language is

enhanced by, by playing single player games.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: Also, reliability is an issue in

more sports games because when you change a part in your engine, you

take a penalty. So you're discussing these things, technical things, with

your engineer.

Improving pronunciation and getting known to different accents is also a point

that is worthy of attention in participant responses. The participants believe that

playing computer games makes gamers more knowledgeable about the pronunciation

of words, and exposes gamers to various accents of English in online platforms.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: In terms of advantages, we

are speaking so much, which improves our pronunciation … also, you

have a clear communication with other people with who has other

accent.

Another category under the theme opportunities provided by computer games

for language learning that is comprised mostly of the opinions of the participants that

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prefer the multiplayer game mode is communicating with other players. This category

indicates the advantages of computer games in helping players meeting other players,

socializing and becoming friends with these players, and being engaged in authentic

and meaningful communication. The participants believe that computer games play an

important role in making learners using the language to socialize with people from all

over the world.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: Well, I think the biggest

advantage of playing a multiplayer role-playing game is the

communication. Authentic communication, right? So when you're

learning English … so yeah, you can, you know, read a lot on the web

or you can just learn vocabulary through many mobile apps, whatever.

But, it is often a little bit difficult to get into meaningful communication.

I think role-playing games. Just provides you with that.

Multiplayer strategy game respondent: OK, first of all, as I started

playing multiplayer, multiplayer games, I started with my siblings. So,

it doesn't have improvement on my learning, but as the technology

developed and the game developed, the game industry developed, we,

my friends and I started to go to Internet cafes, and in there we have

connected with other people from other countries.

The final category under the theme opportunities provided by computer games

for language learning was improvement in target language skills. This category stands

for the improvement of receptive and productive language skills. Similar with the

previous category, most of the coded responses under this heading come from players

who play the multiplayer game mode.

Multiplayer action game respondent: When you play in Turkey or any,

any other country, you have to, to use the uh, English servers or Russian

servers you, you know you, you have to meet people uh, so far from you.

Because of that you need you need to use the English language. First

that we, we learn the English in in schools, you know. But yeah, yeah,

that's not enough to, to make a good practice or to use it with people.

Multiplayer adventure game respondent: While playing these games,

we talk each other and, but these games mostly, item names the most

important things, I think. Maybe you can learn, from these games like,

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well, uh, you can learn such things like words, or you can improve your

English speaking by speaking to other players.

Single-player strategy game respondent: In these strategy games you

also need to read a lot of descriptions. So it also improves your reading

actually, and if it's a real time strategy game you need to be fast, and

it's, it's crucial. Yeah, it's a crucial thing to be fast, and so you need to

read fast.

There is considerable prevalence in the opinions of the participants that playing

computer games helps you improve your language skills by using the language

actively. The participants believe that they practice and improve their reading by

reading descriptions in the game, listening by chatting with other players, writing via

messages, and speaking through conversations with other players from all over the

world.

4.5.3. Limitations of Computer Games for Language Learning

Another theme identified as a result of the analysis was limitations of computer

games for language learning. This theme corresponds to the drawbacks of language

learning in different game modes and genres. The theme was comprised of codes that

were grouped under the categories of game-related issues and player-related issues.

Game-related issues stands for obstacles for language learning due to features of

specific games and player-related issues are related with the practices of players that

might inhibit the language learning process in computer games. Genre and mode

differences led to different opinions of participants under the present theme and

categories.

The first category under the heading is game-related issues. This category

involves challenges of language learning in computer games that result from issues

like learning words that are not common in daily life, potential confusion with

excessive content, the use of archaic language, restriction of time, lack of certain

language skills, and overemphasis of a certain language skill. This heading is mostly

comprised of responses by players preferring the single-player game mode. Some

participants believe that certain genres may not be as effective as others for language

learning while others criticized specific genres for being too specific in terms of the

vocabulary that is used in the game or the type of language that is used in the game.

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Single-player action game respondent: I think the best way to learn

English for me is playing an RPG, role-playing game. Surely single-

player action games are beneficial for this, but not as much as role-

playing games, I guess.

Multiplayer adventure game respondent: The player may be confused

because there is a lot of dialogue in such a, in such games. Also, the

fact that they use an old language according to the time of the game

may cause problems for the player to understand those dialogues.

Another important point under the first category is the lack of certain language

skills in specific game modes or genres, or the use of a specific language skill too often

in certain game modes or genres. Some participants believe that there is a lack of usage

of particular skills in some game modes or genres. This is especially evident in the

opinion that the use of productive skills are lacking in games with single-player mode.

On the other hand, some participants believe that certain skills are used too much in

specific genres. An example to this is the strategy genre, where the participant who

prefers to play games from this genre in single-player game mode believes that there

is too much use of reading within these games.

Single-player adventure game respondent: OK, single player. Uh, you

don't get to talk a lot. I mean, there is not a real person in front of you.

You don't talk. I mean, speaking is not that, you know, an aspect of the

single player games sometimes you listen to, you need to listen to other

players, other players’ speeches, their sayings and, you also don't write.

These are the disadvantages. I mean, very limited, uh, writing and

speaking. Sometimes you, yes mostly actually, mostly you listen to or

you read to something. They improve your reading skills. They improve

your listening skills in a way, but not in in the sense of writing or

speaking. These are the things that they usually lack.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: So one of the advantages

is also a disadvantage. The vocabulary is very specific, sometimes there

are no words that have been used in the current language. So yeah,

you're, you're learning a very specific vocabulary, that is disadvantage.

And also a second disadvantage is also, is an advantage. There are lots

of reading. Lots of lots of reading. And if it is a real time strategy, if it's

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a real time strategy, you don't have a time to time to check it, check the

meaning of the words.

Single-player simulation game respondent: Since they are single

player, they don’t include so much speaking. The only person who can

speak is yourself, and yeah, maybe reading, and other than that,

listening. I think there is not much listening in these games as well, so

it's only about vocabulary.

The second category under the theme limitations of computer games for

language learning was player-related issues. This category stands for the acts and

preferences of gamers which can hamper language learning in computer games.

Examples of such behavior include skipping cutscenes and dialogues, not paying

attention to the language use, the use swear words by some gamers, not playing the

game in the target language, trying to do a speedrun (trying to complete a game as fast

as possible), not playing with people from other countries, and being addicted to

games. To start with, ignoring the content of the game due to various reasons is

indicated as a significant problem for language learning by a number of participants.

The participants hold the view that not being exposed to the target language in a game

or not paying enough attention to the language during gameplays is a crucial hindrance

for language learning.

Single-player action game respondent: The disadvantages mainly start

with the preferences of gamers. For example, if you're speedrunning or

trying to do a no-damage playthrough, by again speedrunning, skipping

cutscenes and skipping dialogues, you may lose the opportunity to

grasp some English knowledge.

Multiplayer action game respondent: When you try to use that language

so much you will learn it, but I, I have so much friends, and they didn't

learn it because they, they just play for fun, or yeah you know just I want

to play this round or try to play this game.

Another point that was highlighted by the participants was related to the

preferences or the actions of game players, specifically those that prefer the

multiplayer game mode. The participants think that not playing with people from other

countries, being addicted to certain computer games, and the use of swear words by

some gamers may pose challenges for language learning in these games.

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Multiplayer adventure game respondent: I think playing games is not

only about this, like let me play this game or something. I think we

should play with other players from other countries. We need, yeah, we

should talk to them, and while playing we need to, uh, you know, we

need to see these, uh English words or something and, we try to learn

from them, learn something.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: I think it's a general

disadvantage. If you become addicted to a role-playing game, and it is

a common situation, right, then you won't really care about language

learning, and you won't really care about anything else. So, you need

to know your goals, you need to know how you can benefit from the

game, and you need to sacrifice some of the fun you are having to also

learn some English, as well.

According to the participants, these player-related issues are some of the most

important limitations that can hinder the outcome of language learning in gaming

sessions. Not all these are directly related to the players themselves as some of these

limitations are posed by other players in the same game with the player. However, not

only the ones that are directly related to the players themselves but also the others can

be controlled by players either in the form of avoiding, such as in the case of not

playing the game with people from other countries or not using the game interface in

English, or in the form of ignoring through in-game features, such as in the case of

swearing teammates.

4.5.4. Ways of language Learning and Practicing in Computer Games

The third theme that was uncovered as a result of the analysis was ways of

language learning and practicing in computer games. This theme indicates the various

ways through which gamer learners of English learn and practice target language

knowledge and skills in computer games. The categories identified under this theme

were ways of vocabulary learning, ways of grammar learning, ways of reading

practice, ways of listening practice, ways of writing practice, and ways of speaking

practice. Each category denoted the ways of learning and practicing in that specific

target language knowledge or skill type.

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The first category that was identified as a result of the analysis was ways of

vocabulary learning. This category explains how gamers learn target language

vocabulary while playing computer games. This includes both the ways they are

exposed to vocabulary items in games and various techniques that they use to enhance

vocabulary learning during gameplay sessions. These means involve finding meanings

of vocabulary items through the context, using a dictionary to check the meaning of

words, learning words to communicate with others in games, using game-related

collocations while gaming, getting exposed to vocabulary items via the quotes of

characters, learning new vocabulary items via reading in-game texts, learning

previously encountered words from a teacher, learning words that are specific to a

game, searching the meanings of words on the Internet, and getting exposed to game-

specific terms. Although it was not always the case, in participant responses, more

participants preferring single-player game mode focused on learning via the context or

using dictionaries, and the participants preferring the multiplayer game mode

highlighted the importance of learning vocabulary in an effort to communicate with

others. On the other hand, people preferring different genres mostly had similar

opinions towards the ways of vocabulary learning in computer games.

Single-player action game respondent: For example, first, uh, trying to

understand the word by its context. Let's say, when does that word is

used, or where, by whom that that word is used and, another type of

method is using dictionaries. Really classic, but works great, like a

charm.

Multiplayer action game respondent: In Counter Strike, when you talk

with other people, you have to use some sentences, like I said like, the

enemy at a site, or I need a gun, or I need help. That's the basics, of

Counter Strike you don't need so much, uh, words to, to learn to play

CS, go with other people, but some other games you need to learn it, or

sometime when you meet a good guy and make friends with them, then

when you talk with them you, you will need another word like, uh, where

you study and, uh, do you have a girlfriend. Yeah, we talk about this,

and what you study, how long you are playing CS:GO or another game

we play. Because of that, you need to meet people and you need to open

another conversation to learn the good English. In CS:GO, you have

the basics after like, I said, after like 500 hours, you will have the basics

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of CS:GO. You have the basics of, like, I will flash after three seconds,

maybe you will say to your friends, or you will type at chat to other,

other guys. Yeah, you will use something, it’s the basics. After like 500

hours, you will not need a new word, I guess.

Single-player strategy game respondent: You're reading, you're

stumbling upon a word that you don't know, and your, your curiosity

gets the best of you, and you just, yeah, you just get your dictionary,

check it, or use Tureng (a dictionary), I mainly use Tureng, for these

kinds of stuff and. Also, you're reading, and you just see a word that you

don't know, and then go to school, and the teacher, shows you the

meaning of the word, and that way you learn it.

One interesting point under this category was that unlike the participants

preferring the other genres, the participants that prefer the simulation genre in both

single-player and multiplayer game modes both focused on the learning of specific

terms while playing simulation games.

Single-player simulation game respondent: As I said, these games are

focused on a specific subject, and for example, when you are playing

The Sims, you can learn many vocabularies from your daily life,

because you are chatting with other sims in that game as if you are a

real person in that world. That's how you do it. And, as for Euro Truck

Simulator, sometimes your gear gets, Uhm, spoiled in the game, and

you can understand by Googling it, what does gear means. Otherwise,

you can't figure out what's that.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: To be honest, I work so hard

to get that terminology because I'm not a mechanical engineer.

Sometimes, we have disconnecting with our engineers, so I have to

learn every single thing on my car, especially in iRacing. You have to

adjust brake bias, you have to adjust camber, so suddenly you are

turning into a mechanical engineer. Then I have to learn every single

detail and terminology of my car, because sometimes I have to adjust

them myself. So, I have to know every single name of the parts of engine,

tires or brakes. So, this enlarged my vocabulary so well, because I have

to understand.

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The second category under the theme ways of language learning and practicing

in computer games was ways of grammar learning. This category corresponds to the

ways of learning grammar in computer games. The participants believe that getting

exposed to distinct grammar structures repetitively in different contexts and using

grammar actively for communication are key points of learning grammar in computer

games. Implicit learning is highlighted as an important aspect of grammar learning, as

well. When it comes to the distribution of the participant expressions based on game

mode and genre, it is evident that participants preferring the single-player game mode

tend to focus on the exposure to grammar structures and learning through the context

implicitly, whereas participants that favor the multiplayer game mode dwell more on

the practicing of grammar actively for communication. A considerable effect of genre,

on the other hand, was not observed in the responses of the participants except for

more focus on story-based reading activities in role-playing genre. Apart from that,

participants from various genres that prefer the single-player game mode specifically

pointed out that they learn grammar structures implicitly by getting exposed to various

content.

Single-player adventure game respondent: If the grammar structure is

not that complicated and if it's very, repeating or, the, the same

structure repeats all over again, yes, you learn it. For example, I

remember learning this structure, I mean, the, the smarter you get, the

better, the better a chess player you become. These kinds of structures

are very easy to learn because they are distinct in a way. I mean, they're

different from other structures and they stand out. And yes, you learn

these kinds of structures. Uh, if, if the, if the sentences are not that

complicated, I mean, in a simple way you learn them.

Single-player strategy game respondent: As it has lots of reading

involved, it has many different grammar rules hidden inside it, so you

are learning it by seeing the rule. As opposed to modern Turkish

schools, where you are just first instructed to use the grammar rule, you

are just seeing the sentence, and you're, you're figuring out the

grammar yourself.

Participants that prefer the multiplayer game mode, on the other hand,

emphasized the importance of practicing and using grammar actively in computer

games. Using grammar structures in speech, practicing what already-known structures

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in communication, and trying to use grammar effectively for improved communication

are among the notable opinions. The participants that favor the multiplayer game mode

believe that they use their already existing grammar knowledge actively in computer

games for communicative purposes. But there are also opinions that there are limits to

the learning and practicing of grammar in computer games.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: I don’t really know about

the grammar. Yes, you see some grammatical structures, and especially

if you're playing a game like World of Warcraft, you can see a little bit

of literary texts, you know, using different kinds of structures. But I think

the real strength of playing multiplayer games for your grammar is that

you can practice your grammar, whether you're writing something

where you are speaking, you're using structures. So, for the practice

part, I would say that yes, it's helping with your grammar, but after a

certain level, I don't think you're really learning new grammatical

structures, and it's also, about, you know. After some level of English,

you can understand what your goal is in the game without

understanding the whole text, right?

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: If I'm not mistaken,

sometimes you have to talk every single thing on the grammar. I mean,

when your engineer said box box, you can say only box because it

means something different. You always have to use there, how can I say

that, you, you have to use their terms. You can't go outside. So, it forces

you to use their grammar and syntactical structure.

The third category under the theme ways of language learning and practicing

in computer games was ways of reading practice. This category denotes the various

ways of reading practice that is carried out by gamer learners of English in computer

games. These include activities such as reading subtitles, chat messages, instructions,

quests, speech bubbles, hints, and settings. The participant responses under this

category are mostly repetitive and overlapping regardless of the game mode and genre.

The participants believe that there is a considerable level of reading in all genres and

game modes. The most striking ways of reading practice compared to the others under

the category is reading subtitles. The participants believe that reading the subtitles, or

in some cases speech bubbles, of in-game characters’ communication is a crucial part

of reading practice in various game genres.

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Single-player adventure game respondent: I practice reading a lot in

these games because the, the genre I play, the games I play, requires

you reading a lot. I mean like divulging The Walking Dead, when you

are moving through the storyline, you need to talk to a lot of people.

And, when you talk to them, sometimes they don't just, I mean in the in

the game, uh, there is no such thing as speaking. Sometimes the

speaking things should pop up on, on, on the players, and you need to

read them a lot. And when there is the listening part in the games, when

the other players or NPC's are talking, there are subtitles, and if you

are or if I am not that good at understanding the spoken context, then I

need to read the subtitles, so I practiced it a lot. I can say that I practice

it a lot.

Single-player action game respondent: As I mentioned before, I try to

do my best, during cutscenes and in game dialogues, to read and

understand each word or sentence.

Another important view held by participants with different game mode and

genre preferences under this category is related to the reading activities in the game

that are conducted to understand and/or to customize game mechanics, such as reading

instructions, hints, and settings of games. The participants believe that these hold and

important place in the game simply because it is often necessary to play any game or

to be better at it.

Multiplayer action game respondent: Sometimes you, when you wanted

to learn a new game, you need to, to, to read the rules of the game. And

when you read it, you need to know what it is to play the game good, so

you can learn from there. Not, not that enough, but yeah, it's enough for

any player.

Single-player strategy game respondent: Strategy games requires

reading. If you don't read, you don't get, you don't get to defeat your

opponent. There are, there are just specific things that may, that may

give you upper hand in the battle.

When it comes to story-based reading, the role-playing genre stands out from

the others. In the role-playing genre, the reading of game-based stories and quests are

regarded by the participants as accounting for considerable reading practice in the

game. Role-playing games are often set in fictional settings. The participants in the

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role-playing genre point out at they are involved in reading activities in the game by

reading these-game based stories and quests in order to follow the storyline, or to get

more information about the lore of the game. This is also an important point of

importance considering the fact that the role-playing genre had the highest levels of

reading practice both in the results of the questionnaire and the observation.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: For example, there are

hundreds of books in game called the Elder Scrolls Skyrim. These books

contain information about the story of the game, and players who want

to understand the story better must understand the text in the books very

well. This requires the player to put in extra effort to understand the

text of the books.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: Well, definitely. You know,

in role-playing games there are some quests, and, unless you're using

some add-on or some other additional software, you need to understand

the quest, you need to understand where you're going, what you need to

do. But as I said, if your goal is to just level up or just play the game,

you can just easily skip those parts. So, for me, I just enjoy this story. I

just love reading the quests and additional texts in the game, and this is

a I think a great way to learn vocabulary items implicitly … So, when

you get a quest, you know, you can just click on accept in World of

Warcraft or you can just read the quest if you're interested in its story.

So, I'm mostly interested in this story, and I read those texts.

In terms of the codes of the observation and the codes of the interview, it can

be said that the two largely corroborate one another. A number of reading activities

such as reading subtitles, reading speech bubbles, reading quests, reading game

settings, reading instructions and hints, reading in-game information, and reading chat

messages were activities that were noted both within the observation and the interview.

The fourth category under the theme ways of language learning and practicing

in computer games was ways of listening practice. This category is comprised of codes

that refer to the practicing of the listening skill in computer games. These instances

involve listening to quests, details of a story, instructions that are read aloud, dialogues,

teammates, and other players. Under the present category, game mode presents itself

as the factor that causes differences among the opinions of the participants. Whereas

the participants preferring the single-player game mode focus on content-based

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listening activities such as listening to quests, dialogues, and instructions, the

participants that favor the multiplayer game mode focus more on listening to

teammates or other players while gaming. When it comes to genre-based influences,

similar with the practicing of reading, the focus of in listening for the participants that

prefer the role-playing genre was more story-based activities compared to the other

genres, where the focus was more on dialogues and communication with other players.

The first point that should be highlighted under this category was the opinions

of the participants favoring the single-player game mode. In the opinions of these

participants, listening to game content had a dominant role. These participants believe

that listening to in-game characters and content is a significant component of listening

practice in different computer game genres by also noting certain limits of specific

genres for the comprehensiveness of the listening practice.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: They can learn the details

of tasks by listening to characters in game in terms of listening and

speaking, especially in RPG games, since the lyrics in the game give

the details of the story to player, the players should listen with extra

attention.

Single-player strategy game respondent: Well, strategy games involves

little listening actually, but specific games like Total War has, you know

that instructor that reads you the text without you need to read it. And,

that way you can listen to an extent, but it's not that, well, let's say

thorough as reading.

The participants that prefer the multiplayer game mode, as noted earlier,

focused more on the listening activities that result from the communication of players

in the game. According to the participants, this act of listening can result from the

communication of players within the same team or from any other player in the game.

Multiplayer adventure game respondent: Listening, like I said before,

the characters speaking, talking with other players, like, in such games,

like Lost Ark there are crews. There, you join a crew. You can also talk

with a voice, also talk with voice channel, in the voice channel with

other, other players in your crew. Maybe this improves your English,

about listening, listening of players like this.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: Listening, of course we are

having, we have headphones when we are driving the car, so our

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engineer, we are, we have a community on discord so they can

communicate with us on a live broadcast, at the same time we can talk

on Discord channel. They are saying uh, something when I'm driving

so I have to listen and understand him, at the same time, I have to drive

the car carefully because if I'm, if I focus too much on my engineer, I

will crash or, yeah, just like I said I can crash the car. So yeah, listening

is too important in terms of racing games because my engineer always

keep me updated, what my rivals are doing, their lap times. So yeah, it

improves listening too.

The action genre, which displayed the highest levels of listening practice not

only in the questionnaire but also in the observation of streams, did not differ

considerably from the other genres in terms of the types or focus of listening activities

based on the findings of the interview. The types of listening activities in the action

genre were similar to the other genres, both in single-player and multiplayer game

modes in the observation, as well. Both participants sharing opinions on the action

genre indicated that listening practice is a crucial part of action games. The participant

preferring the single-player game mode in action games dwelled on the role of

dialogues in action games, while the participant favoring the multiplayer mode focused

more on the role of communication with other players in practicing listening. This

situation was also similar with the outcome of the observation and the rest of the

interview responses.

Single-player action game respondent: After I played the game and

completed it once or twice, I of course tried to do listening by disabling

subtitles. That's how my listening improves.

Multiplayer action game respondent: Of course, the listening is the

biggest part in in the multiplayer games. When you, when you talk, you

have the microphone, and you, you need to have the headphone. You,

you will talk to so many people with so many accents. You will talk with

Russian and English and Portuguese, so many people can play with

you, people from Germany, they all have an English, maybe it's not that

good, but yeah, it's good for English learning. You can learn from them.

The ways of listening practice that are uncovered as a result of the analysis of

the interview demonstrate significant similarities with the activities of listening

practice that were identified as a result of the observation. The ways of listening

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practice in participant responses such as listening to quests that need to be completed,

listening to story elements, listening to some instructions, listening to dialogues

between in-game characters, listening to teammates in voice-chat, and listening to

other players in games were all identified as part of the observation, as well. Therefore,

it can be stated that the acts of listening practice uncovered as a result of the

observation and the interview mostly corroborate one another.

The fifth category under the theme ways of language learning and practicing

in computer games was ways of writing practice. This category covered the opinions

of the participants that indicated how they practice writing in different game modes

and genres. These ways include taking notes, noting down expressions, writing chat

messages, writing messages until being ready to speak, writing in-game input, and

writing by getting help from the Internet. Just like writing was the skill that was

reported to be practiced the lowest in the questionnaire and observed to have the least

amount of practice in the observation, ways of writing practice had the smallest code

frequency among the four language skills. Since writing is a productive skill, most of

the responses under this category came from participants that prefer the multiplayer

game mode, who usually have the ability to communicate with other players. However,

there were also some instances of writing practice by some participants preferring the

single-player game mode, as well.

Most participant responses under the category were related to communicating

with other players in multiplayer games, regardless of the genre. Writing messages is

the most repetitive way of practicing writing in the responses of the participants. It is

a common idea in the data that players can write chat messages to other players in

multiplayer games in this can contribute to their writing development in the target

language. This act of writing can arise as a result of several reasons including not

having the opportunity to talk to other players via a microphone, or not preferring to

speak to other players despite having the opportunity to talk to them. This act of writing

can be realized independently, or by getting help from external sources.

Multiplayer action game respondent: The writing is, maybe I can say

like when you chat you will right, of course. But, uh, yeah, I am weak

with writing a new word. Some, some words you can know, it's not that

hard, but you want to write a new word like a maybe … I got a good

yeah that, that's a good sample, it’s like how I can write congratulation.

Yeah, I can say it, but I take some hard to write it, so sometimes when I

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try to learn how I can write, I will just go to Google and try to write it

there. Yeah, that's how I can know how I can write in English.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: You know, uh, some players

do not choose to use their microphones. And when I was in high school,

actually, I was writing more than I spoke in those games, so I didn't

have a microphone. I was really ashamed of speaking in those games

because most of my friends were native speakers. So, during those times

I relied more on my writing, uh, I was writing what I'm going to do, I

was writing if I had a question. So, things like that. But as I increased

my English proficiency, and as I, as I was able to speak more fluently,

I used my speaking skills more.

As noted earlier, some single-player participants also pointed a couple of ways

of practicing writing while playing single-player games in addition to noting some

limitations to writing. This includes taking notes during the gameplay and writing in-

game input. Taking notes can be related to writing down specific expressions within

the game that grab the attention of the player, or when the player wants to take notes

of something important about the game to keep that thing in mind. Writing in-game

input is related to instances in some games that require the player to write something

specific, often as a code, in order to get the desired outcome in some games.

Single-player action game respondent: If I see some quotations or

words or idioms that I like, I make sure to write it down.

Single-player adventure game respondent: I can say hardly or barely,

because in those kinds of games you don't need to write anything, or

you don't get the chance to write anything other than the passwords.

Sometimes you need to write passwords to open doors and things like

that other than these, other than those, you don't need to write anything,

so writing is not a skill that I can master in those single player games.

You don't get the chance to do it.

The findings under the present category were not in line with the findings of

the questionnaire, just like the findings of the observation. In the findings of the

questionnaire, the highest frequency of writing practice was observed in the strategy

genre, but according to the findings of the observation, this was not the case. Similarly,

the participants sharing opinions on the strategy genre, both the one that favors the

single-player mode and the one that prefers the multiplayer mode, reported lack of

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writing as a limitation for language learning. Under the category of writing practice, it

can be said that the findings of the interview are more similar with the observation

than the questionnaire.

When it comes to the ways of writing practice, however, there is only partial

similarity between the findings of the observation and the interview. In the

observation, the only type of writing practice was related to writing messages on chat.

However, the findings of the interview included other ways of writing such as taking

notes and writing in-game input, in addition to the writing of chat messages. Still, it

can be said that there is more similarity than difference between the two types of data,

since the majority of the codes under the category relate to writing chat messages.

The final category under the theme ways of language learning and practicing

in computer games was ways of speaking practice. This category refers to the ways

through which speaking is practiced by the participants in computer games. These

include speaking with teammates, speaking to other players, having casual

conversations, getting into complex oral interactions, speaking to the AI, and repeating

expressions of in-game characters. Similar with writing, the codes under the present

category were mostly comprised of the expressions of the participants preferring the

multiplayer game mode. However, participants that favor the single-player game mode

also put forward several ways of practicing speaking while gaming. When it comes to

different genres, the opinions of the participants mostly overlap under the present

category. Players from different genres believe that talking to other players in the same

team or in the opposing team in multiplayer game mode and speaking to one-self or

the characters in the game in single-player game mode are the most frequent means of

practicing speaking while playing games.

The first, and the most frequent, ways of speaking practice is talking to other

players in the game through a microphone, whether they are teammates of the player

or just other players involved in the game, according to the opinions of the participants.

It is the common view of the participants that speaking with other players from various

backgrounds from all over the world and different English accents is a crucial part of

multiplayer gaming. This interaction can occur in an effort to become more successful

in the game by boosting cooperation among teammates, or it can simply arise with the

intention of gamers to get known to each other and become friends. One important

point was that several opinions about the ways of speaking practice in multiplayer

games were integrated with listening activities. In addition, some participants also

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pointed out their opinions about different genres of computer games by making

comparisons.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: OK, so for listening can

speaking though those two skills, uh, I think, I think you can greatly

benefit from multiplayer role-playing games for those skills because

you know it is authentic communication if you're playing a role-playing

game like World of Warcraft. You're getting into those raids, dungeons,

and you need to communicate, and it requires a complex form of

communication. You need to complete complex tasks, you need to deal

with complex bosses. It is not like Counter Strike or some other shooter

games. I also played a little bit Counter Strike and all you need to say

is, you know, go there, do this, and it is not a really great way to practice

your listening and speaking, But, in World of Warcraft, especially when

I was playing it like six or seven years ago, I was playing really a lot.

Those times, you know, we needed to communicate a lot, within those

groups, so it was a great way to practice.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: I don't need to practice my

speaking because I'm speaking every single time with my engineer on

race, because just like I said at the beginning, I, we have to decide when

we're going to pit, which tire our option, or are we going to undercut

him, or what should I do, should I preserve the car, or I push the car

for the championship or the points. So, speaking is the most effective

side of simulation games because you have to interact with your

engineer or, or with your co-driver. So, speaking is very important, and

the simulation games have a lot of advantages in terms of speaking.

As noted earlier, the codes under the category were not only comprised of the

responses of the participants that prefer the multiplayer game mode. Participants that

favor the single-player game mode also pointed out several ways of practicing

speaking in single-player games. These included repeating the expressions uttered by

in-game characters in the game and players speaking to themselves during gameplay.

Single-player action game respondent: Speaking well, it mostly works

out by. How may I say? Repeating the words or the idioms or the

sentences, the character characters use.

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Single-player adventure game respondent: In single player games there

are no real people. I mean you need to talk, so I I just talked to myself…

It happens, yes, I mean, if the focus here is, when you're playing a game,

if the focus, if your focus is to learn something in English, and then yes,

you can practice. And I, I did it in the past. Like, there was some no

catchy phrases, and you, you listened to, you heard, and you used to

repeat them. I mean I used to repeat them. It was, it was a good thing.

Yes, I didn't think about that before. Well, when I was playing

Commandos back in the days, there was a phrase: Consider it done.

For example, I learned it from, from the NPC like consider it done from,

from the players. You can, we can say that it is not very effective. Really,

you need to talk to English, talk in English, or practice English. It is not

that effective, but yes, it can be done.

When the results of the interview were evaluated within the light of the findings

of the questionnaire and the observation, which indicated that the frequency and the

length of speaking practice was the highest in the action genre, a considerable

difference between the opinions of the participants that prefer the action genre and the

opinions of the participants that prefer other genres could not be observed. A crucial

point was that the code frequency for speaking practice was higher than all the other

genres under ways of speaking practice. This finding in the interview was similar to

the findings of the questionnaire and the interview. However, the participants in the

action genre did not report different ways of speaking practice compared to the other

genres. The participants that prefer the action genre highlighted the same speaking

practice means, talking to one-self and talking to other players, in their responses.

When the codes under the present category were compared with the codes of

the observation, it was seen that there was considerable similarity between the two.

The ways of speaking practice reported by the participants and the ways of speaking

practice observed in the game streams largely overlapped. These include players

repeating the expressions of in-game characters and talking to themselves in single-

player games, and players talking to other players from different backgrounds in

multiplayer games. Therefore, it can be stated that the findings of the interview

corroborate the findings of the observation under the category ways of speaking

practice.

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4.5.5. Opinions about the Previous Findings of the Study

The fourth theme uncovered as a result of the analysis was opinions about the

previous findings of the study. This theme represents the ideas that were put forward

by the participants when they were informed about certain key points regarding the

results of the questionnaire and the interview. The two categories under this theme

were agreement and disagreement with the previous findings and reasons for the

previous findings. The former stands for the opinions of the participants about whether

they agree or disagree with a specific outcome of the questionnaire and the interview.

Three codes were noted under this category. These were agreement with the previous

findings, partial agreement with the previous findings, and disagreement with the

previous findings. The latter category indicates the ideas of the participants about what

the reasons for the certain outcomes of the previous data collection processes could

be. The codes under this category are numerous and quite similar with the earlier

themes of opportunities provided by computer games for language learning and

limitations of computer games for language learning in that they often refer to various

advantages or disadvantages of computer games for language learning. However,

instead of relying on the general ideas of the participants, they are specifically provided

as potential explanations for the results of the present study. Thus, the categories and

codes under the theme opinions about the previous findings of the study provide

insights into the earlier results of the present study.

The first point of inquiry in the study was to find out whether there were

significant differences between the single-player game mode and the multiplayer game

mode for language learning. There were two notable findings under that inquiry. The

first one was that there was significantly higher reading and listening in single-player

role-playing games than in multiplayer role-playing games. This finding was also

corroborated with the stream observations, which demonstrated that there was more

reading and listening duration in single-player role-playing games than the multiplayer

ones. The findings of the interview point to a direction of agreement with these

findings. When asked about their opinions about the findings, the participant that

preferred the single-player game mode solely focused on the practicing of reading and

listening in these games, whereas the participant that preferred the multiplayer game

mode only dwelled on reading in addition to various other points. This might show

that participants playing single-player role-playing games are specifically and more

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extensively exposed to reading and listening compared to ones that play multiplayer

games.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: I agree, as I said in

previous questions, there is a great benefit in playing RPG games,

especially for a player who wants to improve his reading and listening

skill through the language.

In terms of the comparison of single-player and multiplayer game modes, the

second notable finding was that there was more writing and speaking practice in

multiplayer games than in single-player games in all the genres involved. When they

were asked about their opinions regarding the findings of the study, no participant

sharing opinions about the single-player game mode expressed that there was practice

of writing and speaking skills in single-player games unlike the ones that prefer the

multiplayer game mode. This clearly indicates that lack of other players to

communicate with is a significant limitation for the improvement of target language

writing and speaking skills in single-player games of all genres.

Single-player action game respondent: Yes, I agree with that statements

because I personally mostly do reading and listening. And I can mostly

find instances for listening and reading than writing, and grammar, and

speaking.

The second focus of the study was to find out differences among the genres in

terms of the learning of target language vocabulary and grammar, and the practicing

of target language reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills. In the questionnaire,

it was found that there was a significant difference among the genres in terms of the

learning and practicing frequency of each target language knowledge and skill type. It

was uncovered that the reason for the significant difference in learning vocabulary,

learning grammar, and practicing reading was lower frequency levels of learning and

practicing in the simulation genre. The significant difference in practicing listening

and practicing speaking resulted from relatively higher levels of practice frequency for

these skills in action games. Finally, the significant difference in writing stemmed from

relatively higher practice frequency in the strategy genre. On the other hand, the

observation supported some of these findings while not supporting the others. Firstly,

no overt example for learning of vocabulary and grammar took place in none of the

game modes and genres involved in the observation. Similarly, the writing duration in

the strategy genre was not the highest compared to the other genres. In contrast with

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these, the observation corroborated relatively lower levels of reading in simulation

genre, and higher levels of listening and speaking in the action genre. The participant

responses provide several opinions and potential explanations for these outcomes.

First of all, there was a discrepancy between the findings of the questionnaire

and the interview with regard to the learning of vocabulary and grammar. When the

responses of the participants are considered, several possible explanations are put

forward. One common idea was that vocabulary and grammar are learned more

implicitly in computer games than explicitly. Another notable idea was that, after a

certain level of proficiency in the game or in the target language, players may not need

to understand every vocabulary item and grammar structure in a game in order to

proceed through the storyline or to perform better in the game.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: Well, implicit learning is

very much possible in games, but I think it's about your motivation

again If your motivation is to complete your objective in the game, then

you would just go for the objective you, would just see, kill this and

collect this and you would just go for it. But if you're interested in in a

little bit more, if you're interested in this story, if you're interested in

the details, then you would have this urge to go to the next level. I think.

It might be related to that.

Multiplayer strategy game respondent: I do, yes, I do, by listening, uh,

in sentences what it used before or what it used after, like indirect

learning.

Secondly, when it comes to relatively lower levels of reading in simulation

games, there was agreement and disagreement with the findings. This situation was

not just applicable to reading, but also for listening, writing, and speaking, as well. In

all these skills, in the results of the questionnaire and the interview, simulation games

had relatively lower levels of practice frequency and duration compared to other

genres. When the participants sharing their opinions on simulation games were asked

about their ideas on relatively lower levels of target language skills practice in

simulation games, the participant preferring the single-player game mode agreed,

whereas the participant preferring the multiplayer game mode disagreed. Whereas the

former participant expressed similar ideas throughout the interview, the latter

participant suggested that this finding might be related to the preferences of the gamers

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involved in the study. However, the participant disagreeing with the findings focused

more on communicative skills as opposed to reading while expressing opinions.

Single-player simulation game respondent: Yes, I completely agree. I

mean, I said this during our interview so many times. I agree.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: No, I don't. Because just like

I said before, we do a lot of, uh, communication with our friends or

engineers. So you need to talk very fluently, and you have to use the

correct grammar to communicate better and do better jobs.

In terms of relatively higher levels of listening and speaking in action games,

the participants seemed agreement despite their agreement being at different levels.

When the participants sharing opinions on action games were asked about this issue,

the one preferring the single-player game mode agreed with the findings whereas the

one preferring the multiplayer game mode demonstrated partial agreement. The

participant that preferred the single-player game mode stated complete agreement in

the statement, which was noted earlier, as well. Practicing listening and reading

intensively mostly through dialogues and their subtitles seems to be dominant over the

use of productive skills in single-player action games. The other participant did not

believe that action games have more listening than some other genres by giving an

example from a role-playing game. This example is noteworthy considering the fact

that role-playing is the genre where the listening practice frequency is the second

highest after action games in the findings of the questionnaire and the genre has the

second highest listening duration according to the findings of the observation. Taking

this into consideration, it can be stated that the viewpoint is not completely conflicting

with the previous findings of the study.

Single-player action game respondent: Yes, I agree with that statements

because I personally mostly do reading and listening. And I can mostly

find instances for listening and reading than writing, and grammar, and

speaking.

Multiplayer action game respondent: Yeah, I can agree, but there

there's so many adventure games like, maybe I write it, like The Witcher

3. In The Witcher 3 you need to learn so much, so much words from

English, and every time the character in the game, he talks in English,

and you will need to listen it, listen for him. Because of that, we can say

that the adventure games have the same.

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Finally, when it comes to the comparison of the genres based on writing

practice, the findings based on the opinions of the participants regarding previous

results are more in line with the observation than the questionnaire. In the

questionnaire, it was found that there was relatively more writing practice frequency

in strategy games compared to other genres. In the observation, however, this was not

the case. The duration of writing was not higher than all the other genres, and there

was almost no instance of writing in the strategy genre, just like most other genres.

When the participants sharing opinions on the strategy genre were asked about their

opinions on this issue, they provided ideas in line with the findings of the observation.

The participant that preferred the single-player mode agreed with the findings of the

observation rather than the questionnaire. The participant that prefer the multiplayer

mode also agreed with the results of the observation stating a lack of writing in strategy

games.

Single-player strategy game respondent: Well, I think these persons

who, these person who say that strategy games involves writing, are

playing the games like Dota or League of Legends. These games have

lots of writing in it, and it's also daily speech. So it's not like, uh, specific

vocabulary that you need to use. You can use daily speech and you can

also use grammatical structures in those games, but I personally do not

consider those games as strategy. So yeah, I just, I agree with the

observation, but not with the questionnaire.

Multiplayer strategy game respondent: I agree that I think that writing

is not that much in strategy games.

The third focus of the questionnaire and the observation was to compare the

genres within themselves to find out whether certain target language knowledge and

skills have more learning and practicing frequency and duration compared to others

within each genre. The findings of the questionnaire were quite similar to one another

under this point of inquiry. In all the genres involved, there were higher frequency

levels of vocabulary learning, reading practice, and listening practice compared to

grammar learning, writing practice, and speaking practice. The findings of the

observation partially differed but mostly supported these findings. In the observation,

no overt example of vocabulary and grammar learning was observed. However, there

was also higher durations of reading and listening practice compared to writing and

speaking practice in the observation, as well. When the participants were asked about

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their opinions regarding this finding, most of them agreed and stated that they do more

reading and listening compared to writing and speaking in their gaming sessions.

Single-player adventure game respondent: Yes, I agree with it and

actually what I told you was more or less the same. Yeah, and that's

right, I agree. You learn more vocabulary than writing or speaking, and

you listen to more than the others.

Multiplayer strategy game respondent: Yes, I agree with this finding.

As can be seen from the participant responses, the opinions of the participants

indicated an agreement with the finding that learning vocabulary is more frequent than

grammar, and practicing reading and speaking is more frequent than practicing writing

and speaking in computer games as a whole.

4.5.6. Suggestions for Gamer Language Learners

The fifth theme that was found out as a result of the analysis of the interview

was suggestions for gamer language learners. This theme relates to the

recommendations of the participants for increased effectiveness of language learning

while playing computer games. The three categories under this theme are adopting a

mindset of learning and having fun, optimizing gaming habits for language learning

and using external sources. The first category is related to the suggestions of the

participants about the need to focus both on having fun and trying to learn and practice

the language while playing computer games. The second category involves

suggestions of the participants that are related to improving gaming preferences so that

the effectiveness of language learning while playing can be maximized. The third

category, on the other hand, includes participant recommendations about using

external sources of language learning and language content that can be utilized by

gamers in an effort to augment the outcome of language learning during, prior to, or

following gaming sessions.

As noted previously, the first category adopting a mindset of learning and

having fun pertains to the recommendations of the participants for other gamer

language learners in terms of adapting their mentality for not only having fun but also

for language learning to get more benefit from computer games for language learning.

The codes under this category involve the opinions of the participants regarding the

need for being passionate about language learning while gaming, focusing on learning

as well as having fun, being determined to use previously-learned structures during

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gaming sessions, and not being afraid of speaking. The participants believe that one of

the most important steps of getting the best benefit from computer games in terms of

language learning is to make oneself ready to learn target language knowledge, and

trying to and not being afraid of using target language skills in gaming sessions. There

is a common ground among the opinions of the participants that if players give

importance to language learning and try to do their best to learn and practice while

having fun, the outcome of language learning can be optimized.

Single-player adventure game respondent: You need to, uh, concentrate

on learning, not just playing the game. You need to concentrate on

learning new material from the game. Of course, you're going to enjoy

the game, but also you don't need to waste your time, such a, only by

playing the games. You need to learn something. And consider this, I

mean, this is this is better for you when you want to learn something.

And it's also enjoyable.

Multiplayer strategy game respondent: Most of the people that I know

is afraid to speak, uh, to other people from other nations like ... some

people afraid to talk with other people from other nations, and because

they're afraid they don't speak, in the, with their friends. So they are

being less, and I forgot that again, and they are afraid to speak. My

suggestion to them would be don't be afraid to speak because people

would always correct you or people will always understand you, it’s

better not to correct you, but understand what you mean at that moment.

So I would suggest them to not be afraid to speak.

The second category under the theme suggestions for gamer language learners

was optimizing gaming habits for language learning. This category stands for the

suggestions of the participants that are related with adopting gaming habits that can

maximize the benefit of language learning in computer games. These suggestions

involve playing on international servers, playing different kinds of games, taking notes

while playing, talking to oneself, and personalizing gaming experience for enhanced

language learning. The participants believe that in order to get the most benefit from

computer games in terms of language learning, players need to adapt their gaming

habits accordingly. It is understood from the opinions of the participants that playing

on international servers instead of national ones requires players to communicate in

English, playing different kinds of games helps players helps them benefit from

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various aspects of different games, taking notes allows players to remember what is

learned, talking to oneself neutralizes the negative effects of not being able to speak to

other players in cases such as in single-player games, and personalizing gaming

experience may help increase the fun as well as learning.

Single-player adventure game respondent: If I want to learn or improve

my language through single player games, I would suggest playing a

variety of games. I mean, different games, not just one type or not just

one game. Uh, you need to play as much or as many different games as

possible because each context and each game is different in its own

world, and you need to get into those different words to get different

vocabulary. And I can suggest that.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: I usually use a notepad to

write down vocabulary items that I see in the games or in TV series.

Usually those are not single items at my level, but when I see an idiom

or an idiomatic phrase, I just write it down, and then when I have some

free time, I try to practice it in different contexts. So I think the best way

to learn in those games is to just write down what you don't know in

those games, whether it is vocabulary or grammatical structure, and try

to use it in different contexts. I think this is the key.

Single-player simulation game respondent: I think when they play

simulation games, they might talk to themselves because that I always,

that's something I always do. I talk to myself in my head in English. And

that improves your fluency when you're speaking because when, when

you practice speaking in your own head, you can feel yourself confident

because there is no one to judge you except yourself. And when you

speak to yourself in your mind, you can feel that you don't know a

specific word and its meaning, and you can just Google it, you can learn

the meaning of the word, you can extend your vocabulary and yeah,

that's all.

The final category under the theme suggestions for gamer language learners

is using external sources. The points under this category relate to the suggestions of

the participants of the study that are related to using language learning tools or

authentic language content that players might benefit from during, prior to, or

following gaming sessions. These include searching the meanings of unknown words

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via a dictionary, watching movie adaptations of games, and watching game streamers

that use players’ native language and target language.

Multiplayer action game respondent: You want to just sit down and

play, after the playing you need to search about any, any new word you

heard in the game or saw it in the chat … In the last years we have some

movies from games. You can watch movies from games.

Single-player strategy game respondent: In my case, I actually never

just figured out the language itself. I played it. And then I watched a

Turkish guy playing it, and it all came together just parts. Just we all fit

all fitting together. I was reading the English text that I, I was watching

this Turkish guy translating it and it all, it all came together.

Multiplayer simulation game respondent: I started to learn with, uh, I

just Google it on the Internet. So I just take a look what is this part.

There is a common belief among the participants that players need to benefit

from dictionaries for the unknown words that might be encountered in games. Some

pointed out the Internet for this point while others did not specify the means of

accessing the dictionary. Another interesting suggestion was watching movie

adaptations of games. A number of games, including the ones that are played by the

streamers and the participants, have cinematic adaptations, and these are outlined as

useful additional sources of language learning. In addition to these, watching game

streamers, which is a prevalent activity among gamers, is also noted as a useful

activity, especially provided that the streamer can speak both the native language and

the target language of the player.

4.5.7. Expectations of Gamer Language Learners from Computer Games

The final theme that was found out as a result of the analysis was expectations

of gamer language learners from computer games. This theme denotes opinions of the

participants that are related with their expectations from computer games that could

optimize language learning while gaming. Two categories were noted under this

theme. These are feature-related expectations and content-related expectations. These

categories are divided according to the expectations of the participants based on

whether these expectations are related to the mechanics of games or content of games.

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The category feature-related expectations stand for the expectations of the

participants regarding game-play mechanics of computer games and additional

mechanics that can be incorporated into computer games to improve language

learning. These include being able to use different languages, being able to talk to other

players, the presence of subtitles, having a simple design, bearing a pop-up dictionary,

presenting an interactive translation system, and the inclusion of additional elements

in games that are already present in the market. Some of these elements already exist

in several computer games despite not being present in all. These include subtitles,

simple design, and the ability to talk to other players via a microphone. The

participants believe that these features that they use in some computer games can be

added to some others that do not possess them to make language learning more

effective. Some other elements noted by the participants are not found in most, if not

all, commercial computer games. Such features involve pop-up dictionaries and

integrated translation systems. According to the participants, the development and the

integration of such features to computer games can enhance language learning output

in computer games:

Single-player action game respondent: I also thought about a Netflix

extension in which we use it to grasp some words and idioms and

sentences with their word program, let's see … Maybe that would be

useful.

Multiplayer role-playing game respondent: I think the ideal way is to

take something already available, something that is popular and

enjoyable, and, um, try to implement some features into it just to boost

language learning this might be, and then maybe game designers

wouldn't care about this, but maybe you can just, I don’t know, create

a platform like Steam or something like that, or a software that stops

you every 10 minutes or 15 minutes to, I don't know, ask a question. It

asks you a question about the game, asks you a question about the

grammatical structure you’ve just seen. So, I think the ideal way would

be creating something external and apply it to the games that are

already available rather than just trying to create a million-dollar game

which is not really, I don't know, possible.

The second category under the theme expectations of gamer language learners

from computer games was content-related expectations. The opinions under this

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category involve the expectations of the participants regarding language content.

These include points such as being rich in reading texts, being rich in listening

components, having an intriguing and complex storyline for deeper understanding,

being exposed to a number of words, having riddles and puzzles, being presented with

choices, and not inhibiting entertainment with too much focus on learning.

Single-player role-playing game respondent: If I were to make an RPG

game, especially, I would place the game’s universe in a story-written

introduction, development, and conclusion. At the same time, I would

create important side-quests that develop around this plotline and are

relevant to this story. I would, I would not tell these story flows directly

to the player, but I would use them in objects such as books, pictures in

the game. It creates mystery that will activate the curiosity of the player

and I would like them to find them by reading the books in game or by

talking to people. Just like Skyrim, Skyrim is the best game in my

opinion.

Single-player strategy game respondent: Well, I would want it to be

historically accurate first of all, and I would also want it to be, involve

a lot of reading, like it's perfect today, today's strategy games are

perfect in that matter. I also want strategy games to involve choices like

Hearts of Iron or Europe Universalis, or Crusader Kings. Those games

give you a text and some responses, three or more, and Hearts of Iron

gives you two, but that's OK. So role-playing elements can also be

implemented, by the way I think role-playing is the best way to learn it.

And another thing is to involve, I think, listening a bit more. Well,

hiring, what are these called, hiring voice actors is not expensive. They

are cheap, and also, we have new technologies as to AI voice creating.

Those can also be utilized.

The participants believe that getting exposed to detailed and interesting textual

and auditory content through an elaborate storyline and not doing this at the expense

of having fun can contribute significantly to the language learning process. Similar to

the previous category, the participants believe that some games already possess such

content, and they mostly expect other games that they play to have such interesting

and useful content for language learning:

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CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

5.0. Presentation

In this section, the findings are discussed to come up with academic and

practical implications for computer games and language learning in different game

modes and genres. First of all, the section provides answers to the research questions.

Then it offers a comprehensive overview of computer games and language learning in

games with different modes and genres along with optimal game mode and genre

combinations for the learning of target language knowledge and practicing of target

language skills. After these, the results are discussed in the light of the existing

literature. This is followed by implications for research and practice, and limitations

and suggestions for further research.

5.1. Overview of the Findings

The first point of inquiry in the present study was to find out whether there

were any significant differences between single-player and multiplayer game modes

in the participating gamer learners’ perceived frequency of learning vocabulary items

(research question 1a), learning grammar structures (1b), practicing reading (1c),

practicing listening (1d), practicing writing (1e), and practicing speaking (1f). The

main source of data for answering these questions was the questionnaire. However, the

findings of the observation provided insight for answering these questions, as well.

Based on the findings of questionnaire and the observation, there was no significant

difference between the two game modes in learning grammar and vocabulary, which

indicate a negative answer for research questions 1a and 1b. For practicing reading,

the only significant difference in the questionnaire was found in the role-playing genre,

favoring the single-player game mode. In the other genres, there was no significant

177

difference, which pointed to a negative direction for the answer of research question

1c. However, in the observation, the average reading duration of single-player games

was considerably higher than that of multiplayer games, and the duration for reading

practice in single-player mode was higher than that of multiplayer game mode for

every genre, which pointed towards a positive outcome for research question 1c.

Therefore, research question 1c can be answered as neutral. Similar with reading

practice, the only significant difference for listening practice was observed in role-

playing genre, again favoring the single-player game mode. On the other hand, the

average listening duration for single-player games did not differ considerably from

multiplayer ones. Thus, the answer to research question 1d was not positive. When it

comes to writing practice and speaking practice, there was significant difference

between the two game modes for each genre in the questionnaire, favoring multiplayer

games. The observation corroborated this finding, as well. The little writing practice

that was observed was only observed in multiplayer games, and as for speaking, not

only the average speaking practice duration of all genres in multiplayer mode was

higher than single-player mode, the speaking duration of single-player mode of each

genre was higher than those with multiplayer ones, as well, indicating a positive

answer for research questions 1e and 1f.

The second focus of the study was to find out whether there were significant

differences across different genres of computer games based on the participating

gamer learners’ perceived frequency and duration of learning vocabulary items

(research question 2a), learning grammar structures (2b), practicing reading (2c),

practicing listening (2d), practicing writing (2e), and practicing speaking (2f).

According to the findings of the study, all these questions were answered positively.

Firstly, the findings of the questionnaire showed that the main reason for the significant

difference across the action, adventure, role-playing, strategy, and simulation genres

in vocabulary learning and grammar learning was due to lower levels of learning

frequency in simulation games. This indicated a positive answer for research questions

2a and 2b. The situation was the same for reading, as well, according to the findings

of the questionnaire and the observation, both of which demonstrated that the

frequency and duration of reading practice were at much lower levels in simulation

games compared to other genres. Therefore, research question 2c was answered

positively, as well. For listening and speaking, both the questionnaire findings and the

observation findings indicated that there were significant differences across the genres,

178

mainly due to higher levels of practicing frequency and duration in the action genre.

This provided a positive answer for research questions 2d and 2f. For the practicing of

writing, the findings of the questionnaire indicated that there were significant

differences among the genres, mainly because of higher practice frequency in the

strategy genre. This pointed towards a positive answer for research question 2e, as

well. However, it must be noted that the findings of the observation did not corroborate

this outcome, according to which there were quite low levels of writing practice

duration in all genres.

The third focus of the study was to find out whether there were significant

differences among the participating gamer learners’ perceived frequency of learning

and practicing target language knowledge and skills within the genres of action

(research question 3a), adventure (3b), role-playing (3c), strategy (3d), and simulation

(3f). The findings of the study indicated that, listening skill was significantly higher

than all the other knowledge and skill types in action genre, and vocabulary learning

and reading practice was also relatively higher compared to other knowledge and skill

types, which indicated a positive answer for research question 3a. For all the other

genres, there were also significant differences among the knowledge and skill types,

with vocabulary learning, reading practice, and listening practice having higher levels

of learning and practicing frequency than grammar learning, writing practice, and

speaking practice. This also led to a positive answer for research questions 3b, 3c, 3d,

3e, and 3f.

The fourth point of inquiry in the present study was to find out the types of

language use in different game modes and genres (research question 4). The answer to

this question was manifold as the findings of the observation revealed various activities

of language skills practice. The findings demonstrated that reading subtitles, reading

game content, and reading messages were the main activities of reading; listening to

monologues and dialogues of in-game characters and game content, giving

information, asking, responding, discussing, expressing feelings, explaining,

suggesting, warning, joking and other similar activities were the main activities of

listening; giving information, responding, asking, and expressing feelings were the

main activities of writing; repetition, reading-aloud, talking to in-game characters,

giving information, discussing, expressing feelings, explaining, suggesting, warning,

off-topic conversation, asking, responding and other similar activities were the main

activities of speaking.

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The last point of inquiry in the study was to find out the opinions of

participating gamer EFL learners towards computer games and language learning

(research question 5). This question was answered with six main themes and

underlying categories that were uncovered as a result of the analysis. The first theme

was opportunities provided by computer games for language learning with the

categories exposure to authentic content, communication with other players, learning

target language knowledge, and improvement in target language skills; the second

theme was limitations of computer games for language learning with the categories

game-related issues and player-related issues; the third theme was ways of language

learning and practicing in computer games with the categories ways of vocabulary

learning, ways of grammar learning, ways of reading practice, ways of listening

practice, ways of writing practice, and ways of speaking practice; the fourth theme was

opinions about the previous findings of the study with the categories agreement and

disagreement with the previous findings and reasons for the previous findings; the fifth

theme was suggestions for gamer language learners with the categories adopting a

mindset of learning and having fun, optimizing gaming habits for language learning

and using external sources; and the final theme was expectations of gamer language

learners from computer games with the categories feature-related expectations and

content-related expectations.

5.2. An Overview for Language Learning and Practicing in Different

Game Modes and Genres

Drawing upon the data collected throughout the research process, the study

suggests an outline for language learning in different game modes and genres (See

Table 19). This outline mainly involves the frequency of learning and practicing target

language knowledge and skills, the activities of language learning and practicing, and

the opinions of gamers on language learning in each game mode and genre

combination based on the present findings. Overall, the outline serves as a

comprehensive representation of language learning in different computer game modes

and genres, and is intended for the practical and academic use of anyone interested in

computer games and language learning.

The frequencies for learning and practicing target language knowledge and

skills were listed based the findings of the questionnaire. The median response of

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participants on the frequency of learning and practicing target language knowledge

and skills in each game mode and genre combination is regarded as the average

approximate learning and practice frequency of a certain target language knowledge

or skill type in that game mode and genre combination.

The activities of learning and practicing target language knowledge and skills

were based on relevant codes and categories that were identified in the observation

and the interview. The activities uncovered by means of the observation in a specific

game mode and genre combination and the activities found out as a result of the

interview were used to create a list of expected activities of language learning and

practicing that are typically expected to occur in a given game mode and genre

combination.

The opinions of gamers on language learning in specific game mode and genre

combinations were noted based on the relevant codes, categories, and themes

identified in the analysis of the interview. The codes identified as a result of the

interview were utilized to create a list of the opinions of respondents from each game

mode and genre combination regarding the opportunities and limitations of games for

language learning, the recommendations of gamers to other gamers for optimizing

language learning outcome from gaming, and the expectations of gamers from

computer games in terms of language learning.

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Table 19 An overview of language learning in different game modes and genres based on the findings

Learning and practicing frequency of target language knowledge and skills in single-player games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Vocabulary

Sometimes

Often

Sometimes

Grammar

Sometimes

Rarely

Reading

Often

Sometimes

Listening

Often

Sometimes

Writing

Rarely

Speaking

Rarely

Learning and practicing frequency of target language knowledge and skills in multiplayer games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Vocabulary

Often

Sometimes

Grammar

Sometimes

Reading

Often

Sometimes

Listening

Often

Sometimes

Often

Sometimes

Writing

Rarely

Sometimes

Rarely

Speaking

Often

Sometimes

182

Table 19 Continued

Activities of language learning and practicing in single-player games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Vocabulary

Finding meaning

through context

Finding meaning

through context,

using a dictionary

Learning vocabulary

through reading,

using dictionary for

unknown words

Searching words on

the Internet

Grammar

Implicit learning

Repeating similar

structures

Learning grammar

structures through

context

Reading

Subtitles of

dialogues between

characters

Subtitles, speech

bubbles, settings,

instructions,

response options,

Subtitles, quests,

response options,

item details, in-game

texts

Subtitles, details of

missions,

notifications,

reports, hints

Reports, options,

notifications

Listening

Dialogues of

characters and in-

game videos

Dialogues,

monologues,

notifications

Dialogues and

monologues of in-

game characters,

explanation of

quests

Background and

follow-up stories of

missions, in-game

characters' speech,

instructions

Writing

Noting down

expressions

Speaking

Repetition

Reading aloud,

talking to oneself

Reading aloud,

talking

to NPCs

Responding to in-

game characters

Speaking to oneself

183

Table 19 Continued

Activities of language learning and practicing in multiplayer games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Vocabulary

Contextual

vocabulary learning,

learning words to

communicate, using

collocations

Learning item names

Learning vocabulary

items to understand

quests, implicit

learning

Finding meaning

through context,

using a dictionary

Getting exposed to

specific terms

Grammar

Using grammar

structures in speech,

implicit learning

Practicing grammar

knowledge, implicit

learning

Learning grammar

via character

expressions

Using grammar

actively

Reading

Chat messages,

instructions

Subtitles, messages,

game content

Quests, subtitles,

speech bubbles,

notifications

Subtitles, messages

Notifications, in-

game information

Listening

Teammates giving

information,

discussing,

expressing

feelings, requesting

Teammates asking,

responding, refusing,

explaining,

informing,

suggesting, joking,

expressing feelings,

having off-topic

conversation

Listening to in-game

characters, and

teammates asking,

complaining,

responding, refusing,

explaining,

expressing a need,

informing,

suggesting, joking,

expressing feelings,

warning

Teammates asking,

informing,

responding,

explaining,

expressing

a need, expressing

feelings

Narration and

explanation of in-

game characters,

listening to

teammates

184

Table 19 Continued

Activities of language learning and practicing in multiplayer games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Writing

Chat messages

Asking, responding,

giving information

Writing messages

until feeling ready to

speak

Expressing feelings

Taking notes

Speaking

Giving information,

requesting,

discussing,

expressing feelings

Asking, responding,

explaining,

informing,

suggesting,

expressing feelings,

having off-topic

conversation, self-

talk

Asking, explaining,

informing,

expressing

feelings

Asking, explaining,

suggesting,

responding,

informing,

expressing

feelings

Talking to in-game

characters, talking to

teammates

185

Table 19 Continued

Opinions of language learners on single-player games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Opportunities

Watching

cutscenes, listening

to dialogues,

learning terms,

using idioms,

improving English

skills

Learning

vocabulary and

grammar, practicing

reading

Exposure to

interaction of in-

game characters,

sophisticated

storyline with rich

quests, dialogues

Learning words and

terms, reading

practice, getting

fluent in language

skills

Learning terms

Limitations

Skipping dialogues

and cutscenes,

speedrunning

Lack of writing and

speaking

The use of archaic

language, confusion

with excessive

content

Uncommon words,

excessive reading,

time restrictions

Lack of listening,

lack of speaking

Recommendations

Taking notes,

personalizing

preferences

Playing different

types of games,

using a dictionary,

focusing on learning

and having fun

Using what is

learned throughout

the storyline actively

Watching streamers

who play the game

the target language

and translate it into

the native language

Searching words

online, talking to

oneself

Expectations

More textual input,

a balance between

learning and

entertainment,

pop-up dictionary

More riddles and

puzzles,

sophisticated

content

Intriguing and

complex storyline

Rich reading texts,

presentation of

choices, audio input

with good voice

actors

Simulations with

specific words about

personal needs

186

Table 19 Continued

Opinions of language learners on multiplayer games

Action

Adventure

Role-playing

Strategy

Simulation

Opportunities

Using English,

meeting new

people,

asking questions,

learning vocabulary,

trying to use target

language accurately

Learning

vocabulary,

socializing,

practicing

speaking

Authentic and

meaningful

communication, rich

content

Socializing, writing

messages, practicing

speaking

Learning terms,

practicing speaking,

improving accuracy,

clarity, fluency and

pronunciation

Limitations

Not paying attention

to language use,

swear words

Not playing the

game in target

language, not

playing with people

from other countries

Addiction, lack of

complex grammar

structures, misguided

assumptions of

gamers on learning

Swear words

Lack of writing

Recommendations

Watching movie

adaptations of

games, being

determined to

use previously-

learned structures

Using previously

learned knowledge

actively

Taking notes while

playing

Not being afraid of

speaking

Searching unknown

words online, taking

notes while playing

Expectations

Being able to talk to

other players, being

exposed to many

words

More content for

reading and

listening practice

195

single-player role-playing games. Reading practice is carried out through subtitles of

conversations between in-game characters, response options provided to the player

when an important decision is to be made, details of items that can be utilized by the

main character, and other in-game texts such as notes and books involved in the

storyline. Listening practice is also conducted similarly in these games, via

conversations of in-game characters or monologues where the player listens to the

characters talking to themselves. In addition to this, there is also listening with the

explanation of quests to the player, often by non-playable characters. Grammar is

sometimes learned in single-player role-playing games. When it comes to writing and

speaking practice, the findings indicate that they are practiced rarely in these games.

The rare instances of speaking practice take place by players talking to themselves or

talking to characters in the game with their own effort, since speech input is not a must

in these games.

Opportunities for language learning in single-player role-playing games

include exposure to interaction of in-game characters, a sophisticated storyline which

is rich with complex quests, and the existence of various dialogues. The exposure to

interaction of in-game characters is noted to improve socialization, and the

sophisticated storyline and the dialogues enable players to be exposed to a content that

provides valuable chances for learning target items and structures, and practicing

receptive skills. The limitations in these games involve the use of archaic language and

confusion with excessive content. Many single-player role-playing games in the

market have medieval and fantasy settings, in which archaic language is often used for

an authentic experience. This in turn can cause players to have some trouble certain

vocabulary items and grammar structures. Sometimes there is excessive content in

these games that is presented via quests and other in-game items. This can also cause

learners to ignore details and language use.

The recommendation to learners playing single-player role-playing games is

using what is learned in gaming sessions actively to make the best of the language

learning outcome. This can help learners not only use the knowledge that they learn

from the gaming sessions, but also utilize the knowledge they had previously learned

productively in different settings. The main expectation from single-player role-

playing games is intriguing and complex storylines that require players to delve deeper

into a rich story. This helps learners to go deeper in language use with extended in-

game content.

196

Figure 34 Language learning in single-player role-playing games

5.2.6. Multiplayer Role-playing Games

The study proposes a description of language learning in multiplayer role-

playing games (See Figure 35 for an overview). Vocabulary learning and reading

practice often takes place in multiplayer role-playing games. Vocabulary learning can

happen via implicit learning or learning of vocabulary items to understand the quests

Frequencies

Vocabulary

Often

Grammar

Sometimes

Reading

Often

Listening

Often

Writing

Rarely

Speaking

Rarely

Activities

Vocabulary

Grammar

Reading

Subtitles, quests,

response options,

item details, in-game

texts

Listening

Dialogues and

monologues of in-

game characters,

explanation of

quests

Writing

Speaking

Reading aloud,

talking to non-

playable characters

Opinions

Opportunities

Exposure to

interaction of in-

game characters,

sophisticated

storyline with rich

quests, dialogues

Limitations

The use of archaic

language, confusion

with excessive

content

Recommendations

Using what is

learned throughout

the storyline actively

Expectations

Intriguing and

complex storyline

197

in the game. Reading practice occurs via reading quests that players need to complete,

subtitles of in-game characters conversations, speech bubbles of in-game characters,

and notifications provided to the player by the game. Grammar learning, and practicing

of listening, writing, and speaking sometimes takes place in multiplayer role-playing

games. Grammar learning can occur as a result of implicit learning or the practicing of

already-known structures. Listening can be practiced via listening to in-game

characters, or listening to teammates asking questions, complaining about an unwanted

situation, responding to other players, refusing a suggestion, explaining a situation,

expressing a need, informing other players, suggesting a plan, joking, expressing

feelings, and warning others. Writing can be practiced in these games by writing

messages until a player feels ready to speak via a microphone in the target language to

others. Finally, speaking can be practiced by asking questions to other players,

explaining a situation, informing teammates, and expressing feelings during the

gameplay.

The main opportunities for language learning in multiplayer role-playing

games are rich content that players are exposed to and an environment of authentic and

meaningful communication. Multiplayer role-playing games are often not as

sophisticated as single-player role-playing games in terms of content, but most still

provide a complex storyline to players. The main advantage they have in contrast with

single-player role-playing games is providing an environment of authentic and

meaningful interaction. The limitations of multiplayer role-playing games include the

possibility of causing addiction, lack of complex grammar structures, and misguided

assumptions of gamers on learning. The possibility of getting addicted to games has

always been a matter of controversy in computer games. It is always a good idea to

keep this in mind and come up with strategies to cope with it in computer games and

language learning. Lack of complex grammar structures is noted as another limitation

in multiplayer role-playing games. Misguided assumptions are related to situations

where players feel like they are learning English but in fact they may not be doing so

at a considerable level. That’s why, getting guidance from a language teacher in

computer games and language learning process is a good idea to make sure there is

actually a considerable outcome of language learning. The main recommendation to

multiplayer role-playing gamers is taking notes of vocabulary items and grammar

structures that are encountered while gaming so that they can be utilized later. The

expectations from multiplayer role-playing games incorporate additional features to

198

existing successful games. These include integrating software into games that can

make existing games more effective in terms of language learning by asking questions

about the content of the game or grammar structures encountered while gaming.

Figure 35 Language learning in multiplayer role-playing games

Frequencies

Vocabulary

Often

Grammar

Sometimes

Reading

Often

Listening

Sometimes

Writing

Sometimes

Speaking

Sometimes

Activities

Vocabulary

Learning

vocabulary items

to understand

quests, implicit

learning

Grammar

Practicing

grammar

knowledge,

implicit learning

Reading

Quests, subtitles,

speech bubbles,

notifications

Listening

Listening to in-

game characters,

and teammates

asking,

complaining,

responding,

refusing,

explaining,

expressing a

need, informing,

suggesting, joking,

expressing

feelings, warning

Writing

Writing messages

until feeling ready

to speak

Speaking

Asking, explaining,

informing,

expressing

feelings

Opinions

Opportunities

Authentic and

meaningful

communication,

rich content

Limitations

Addiction, lack of

complex grammar

structures,

misguided

assumptions of

gamers on

learning

Recommendations

Taking notes while

playing

Expectations

Additional

features to

existing successful

games

199

5.2.7. Single-player Strategy Games

A depiction of language learning in single-player strategy games is put forward

according to the present findings (See Figure 36 for an overview). Reading is often

practiced in single-player strategy games. This practice can take place via reading

subtitles of in-game characters’ speech, details of missions explained to players,

notifications and reports about missions provided to players during gameplay, and

hints on how to complete missions in the game. Sometimes, vocabulary and grammar

are learned, and listening is practiced in single-player strategy games. Both vocabulary

and grammar can be learned through the context of reading texts. Vocabulary learning

can take place by using a dictionary. Listening is practiced via audio explanations on

backgrounds of missions and what happens afterwards, the speech of in-game

characters throughout the missions, and instructions that are provided to players during

missions. Finally, writing and speaking are practiced rarely in single-player strategy

games. Speaking can be practiced by acts of players which involve them talking to in-

game characters during missions.

The opportunities for language learning in single-player strategy games involve

learning words and terms, practicing reading skill, and getting fluent in language skills.

Learning of words and terms is often contextual and with the use of language learning

tools such as dictionaries. This is mostly required for players to effectively understand

how to complete missions. The findings indicate that single-player strategy games

involve more reading practice than the practice of any other language skill, therefore

this opportunity is remarkably obvious. Getting fluent in language skills such as

reading is attributed to the time pressure in these games, which is a driving factor

considering the fact that players of these games are often required to complete missions

in given time limits by controlling many units at the same time. The limitations of

single-player strategy games comprise the presence of many uncommon words,

excessive reading, and time restrictions. The presence of many uncommon words is

usually either related to the time period of game’s story or the terms related to warfare

and other specific areas in the games. Excessive reading and time restrictions, on the

other hand, are also presented as a disadvantage just as they are noted as advantages.

Extended reading texts can place a heavy burden on gamers while providing them rich

content. Similarly, time restrictions may cause players to ignore certain content in the

game while facilitating language fluency. A unique recommendation is present in

200

single-player strategy games, which is watching streamers who play the game in the

target language and translate it into the native language. This activity of translation is

noted as an advantage for players to understand what might not have been previously

comprehended. The expectations from single-player strategy games include having

rich reading texts, presentation of choices, and inclusion audio input with good voice

actors.

Figure 36 Language learning in single-player strategy games

Frequencies

Vocabulary

Sometimes

Grammar

Sometimes

Reading

Often

Listening

Sometimes

Writing

Rarely

Speaking

Rarely

Activities

Vocabulary

Learning vocabulary

through reading,

using a dictionary

for unknown words

Grammar

Learning grammar

structures through

context

Reading

Subtitles, details of

missions,

notifications,

reports, hints

Listening

Background and

follow-up stories of

missions, in-game

characters' speech,

instructions

Writing

Speaking

Responding to in-

game characters

Opinions

Opportunities

Learning words and

terms, reading

practice, getting

fluent in language

skills

Limitations

Uncommon words,

excessive reading,

time restrictions

Recommendations

Watching

streamers who play

the game in the

target language and

translate it into the

native language

Expectations

Rich reading texts,

presentation of

choices, audio input

with good voice

actors

201

5.2.8. Multiplayer Strategy Games

The study puts forward an overview of language learning in multiplayer

strategy games based on the findings (See Figure 37 for an overview). There is often

vocabulary learning, reading practice, and listening practice in multiplayer strategy

games. Finding meaning through context and using a dictionary can enable vocabulary

learning. Reading subtitles of in-game characters’ speech and listening to teammates

asking questions, informing other players, responding to other players, explaining a

situation, expressing a need, and expressing their feelings are some of the activities

that lead to reading and listening practice in these games. Grammar learning, writing

practice, and speaking practice sometimes takes place in multiplayer strategy games.

The findings indicate that grammar is learned via expressions of in-game characters.

Writing can be practiced via expressing feelings to other players through messages.

Speaking can be practiced by asking questions, explaining situations, suggesting

moves, responding to other players, giving information, and expressing feelings

through a microphone.

Opportunities for language learning in multiplayer strategy games include

socializing with people from all over the world, writing messages to other players to

communicate, and practicing speaking by talking to teammates while gaming.

Socializing is an important component of multiplayer strategy games since people

from various cultural backgrounds come together to compete against another team,

and this requires people to communicate with one another and sometimes get known

to each other at a personal level. Writing messages is utilized more by some players

than others, but many players do not prefer to talk to others through a microphone and

instead use chat messaging when they would like to express themselves. Like other

multiplayer games, practicing speaking by talking to other players through a

microphone is a common practice in multiplayer strategy games, as well. Limitations

of multiplayer strategy games include swear words. Since competitive gaming can

become tense at times, the use of swear words by some players can hinder the

effectiveness of communication among teammates, which in turn can disrupt the

efficiency of language practice in gaming sessions. The main recommendation to

multiplayer strategy gamers is not being afraid of speaking. Many players may be

afraid to speak in the target language and refrain from talking to other players through

their microphone, but the findings indicate that players can overcome their speaking

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problems and improve their speaking levels by talking to other players in a determined

way. Finally, the expectations from multiplayer strategy games include having a

simple design, being able to use different languages while gaming, and being able to

use subtitles.

Figure 37 Language learning in multiplayer strategy games

Frequencies

Vocabulary

Often

Grammar

Sometimes

Reading

Often

Listening

Often

Writing

Sometimes

Speaking

Sometimes

Activities

Vocabulary

Finding meaning

through context,

using a dictionary

Grammar

Learning grammar

via character

expressions

Reading

Subtitles,

messages

Listening

Teammates

asking, informing,

responding,

explaining,

expressing a

need, expressing

feelings

Writing

Expressing feelings

Speaking

Asking, explaining,

suggesting,

responding,

informing,

expressing

feelings

Opinions

Opportunities

Socializing,

writing messages,

practicing

speaking

Limitations

Swear words

Recommendations

Not being afraid of

speaking

Expectations

Simple design,

being able to use

different

languages,

subtitles

203

5.2.9. Single-player Simulation Games

Based on the findings, the study suggests an outline for language learning in

single-player simulation games (See Figure 38 for an overview). Vocabulary learning,

reading practice, and listening practice sometimes takes place in single-player

simulation games. Vocabulary can be learned by searching the meaning of unknown

words on the internet, and reading can be practiced by reading options of the game,

reports regarding the in-game elements, messages provided to the player by the game,

and notifications regarding different in-game features. Grammar learning, writing

practice, and speaking practice, on the other hand, rarely happens in single-player

simulation games. Among these, only one example was found out, which is the players

talking to themselves. This way of speaking practice was also uncovered in the

observations or interviews of other some other single-player game genres.

The main opportunity provided by single-player simulation games for language

learning is learning terms. Since many simulation games are field-specific, they can

help learners develop a good command of vocabulary items in a certain area. For

example, some simulation games are oriented towards motor vehicles whereas some

others are about branches of sports. Inevitably, players of these games are exposed to

many words and technical terms related to these specific areas in their gaming sessions.

The main limitation of single-player simulation games is noted as lack of listening and

speaking. Single-player simulation games are inferior to the single-player mode of

other genres in terms of providing participants opportunities for listening practice.

Speaking practice, on the other hand, is a common problem in all single-player games

across all the genres involved. The recommendations to single-player simulation

gamers include searching the meaning of words online and talking to oneself.

Considering the frequently field-specific target vocabulary items involved in

simulation games, searching the meaning of unknown words becomes a must for

gamers playing simulation games in the target language. The Internet provides a fast-

paced solution to this problem as single-player simulation games are not real-time, and

can often be paused at any time. Speaking to oneself has been a frequent way of dealing

with the lack of speaking across most genres included in the study throughout the

observation and the interviews. The expectation from single-player simulation games

covers simulations with specific words about personal needs. Individuals have

different reasons for learning English and the participant responses in the study

204

underline the potential advantages for being able to play a simulation game which

enables players to encounter and use vocabulary items according to their personal

needs.

Figure 38 Language learning in single-player simulation games

5.2.10. Multiplayer Simulation Games

The final description of the outline is suggested for multiplayer simulation

games based on the findings (See Figure 39 for an overview). In terms of frequency,

all the areas of target language learning and practice involved in the study had the

Frequencies

Vocabulary

Sometimes

Grammar

Rarely

Reading

Sometimes

Listening

Sometimes

Writing

Rarely

Speaking

Rarely

Activities

Vocabulary

Searching words on

the Internet

Grammar

Reading

Reports, options,

notifications

Listening

Writing

Speaking

Speaking to oneself

Opinions

Opportunities

Learning terms

Limitations

Lack of listening,

lack of speaking

Recommendations

Searching words

online, talking to

oneself

Expectations

Simulations with

specific words

about personal

needs

205

median frequency of sometimes in multiplayer simulation games except for writing,

which had the frequency of rarely. Vocabulary learning can happen by getting exposed

to specific terms and grammar learning can occur by using grammar structures actively

for communication. Reading can be practiced by reading notifications and in-game

information provided to players, listening can be practiced through the explanation and

narration of in-game characters, or by listening to other players in the game, writing

can be practiced by taking notes while playing, and speaking can take place by either

talking to other players in the game, or players talking to themselves.

The opportunities for language learning in multiplayer simulation games

comprise learning terms related to specific fields, practicing speaking by talking to

other players, improving accuracy, clarity, fluency pronunciation due to the need of

sending correct messages to teammates during the game. Learning of specific terms

seems to be the most important advantage in simulation games compared to other

genres and multiplayer simulation games provide this opportunity to players just like

single-player ones. Similar to other multiplayer games, multiplayer simulation games

also enable players to communicate with others through a microphone, which enables

practicing speaking. In many computer games, having effective communication by

providing correct information is an important component, and multiplayer simulation

games are not an exception to this. Especially in team games, players need to provide

information to their teammates as quickly and accurately as possible. Limitations of

multiplayer simulation games include lack of writing practice. Writing is not a

language skill that is frequently practiced in multiplayer simulation games.

Recommendations to gamers while playing multiplayer simulation games cover

searching unknown words online and taking notes while playing. In many games,

players can compensate for some unknown words through a general understanding of

the context and keep playing the game without interruptions. However, since

simulation games are often more field-specific compared to other games,

understanding unknown technical terms can become a necessity and searching the

Internet quickly can be a solution to this problem. Taking notes of expressions so that

they can be used later in in-game or other situations is another suggestion to

multiplayer simulation gamers. The expectations of gamers from multiplayer

simulation games include a simple design, being able to use different languages, and

the presence of subtitles. A simple design can help learners focus on the content more

206

effectively, being able to use different languages might enable them to make

comparisons between the target language and their native language, and presence of

subtitles is an important feature that enables players to practice listening and reading

simultaneously.

Figure 39 Language learning in multiplayer simulation games

Frequencies

Vocabulary

Sometimes

Grammar

Sometimes

Reading

Sometimes

Listening

Sometimes

Writing

Rarely

Speaking

Sometimes

Activities

Vocabulary

Getting exposed to

specific terms

Grammar

Using grammar

actively

Reading

Notifications, in-

game information

Listening

Narration and

explanation of in-

game characters,

listening to

teammates

Writing

Taking notes

Speaking

Talking to in-game

characters, talking

to teammates

Opinions

Opportunities

Learning terms,

practicing

speaking,

improving

accuracy, clarity,

fluency and

pronunciation

Limitations

Lack of writing

Recommendations

Searching unknown

words online,

taking notes while

playing

Expectations

Simple design,

being able to use

different

languages,

subtitles

207

5.3. A Guide for Optimal Game Mode and Genre Combinations in

Learning and Practicing Specific Target Language Knowledge and Skills Based

on the Findings

In this section, the optimal game mode and genre combinations for learning

and practicing each target language knowledge and skill type within the scope of the

present study will be suggested based on the findings (See Figure 40 for an overview).

This will be carried out by identifying the game mode and genre combination that

provides the highest probability of enabling gamer learners of English to learn and

practice specific target language knowledge and skills by synthesizing the outcome of

the learning and practicing frequency of target language knowledge and skills as a

result of the questionnaire, the duration each target language skill was practiced in the

observation, and the opinions of the participants regarding the learning and practicing

of each target language knowledge and skill in the interview.

Considering the fact that some gamers may not be interested in distinct game

modes and genres, the best alternative to the optimal game mode and genre

combination will also be suggested for each target language knowledge and skill type

based on the findings of the study to put forward an alternate game mode and genre

combination to those who may not be interested in the main optimal game mode and

genre combination. This will be provided following the identification and justification

of the optimal game mode and genre combinations.

In addition to identifying the optimal game mode and genre combination for

the improvement of each target language knowledge and skill type, the present section

will exemplify games that are commonly played, the activities of language learning

and practicing that are typically carried out or alternative activities that can be

implemented during gaming sessions, the opportunities and challenges for target

language development to be expected, and suggestions of experienced gamers based

on the present findings related to this specific game mode and genre combination. The

present section will also include any relevant considerable outcome from other game

mode and genre combinations related to each target language knowledge and skill type

whenever necessary.

208

Figure 40 Optimal Game Mode and Genre Combinations for Learning and Practicing Target Language Knowledge and Skills

209

5.3.1. Vocabulary Learning

Multiplayer adventure games displayed the highest perceived vocabulary

learning frequency based on the findings. Adventure games are characterized by

exploration and problem-solving. These require a good level of understanding a

storyline through any content available in a gaming session. Knowing target

vocabulary items to solve common activities in these games such as solving puzzles

or understanding cues provided for completing a specific objective is key to playing

adventure games. Since these vocabulary items are not always low-level or highly

common words, such as in the case of some names of in-game items, learning them

frequently becomes a must for players to complete certain levels. This situation can be

one of the main reasons why adventure games appear to be the ideal games for

vocabulary learning. Another important point to consider here is the game mode. In

multiplayer adventure games, players are expected to explore the environment and

solve problems by cooperating with other players. This adds another dimension to

opportunities for vocabulary learning. In addition to the game content through which

players may have to or choose to learn target vocabulary items, players also need to

understand written or oral input provided by other players in the gaming session. Oral

interaction is real-time, and players may not always find enough time to look up any

unknown words. Still, through oral interactions, they can practice previously learned

words and get better at using their passive vocabulary knowledge actively. On another

hand, written communication is not real time, and based on the findings, writing

practice is more common in multiplayer adventure games compared to other genres.

This written communication via a chat box may also increase the frequency of

vocabulary learning in adventure games. In conclusion, multiplayer adventure games

can be ideal platforms for vocabulary learning, and considerably worthy of gamer

language learners’, teachers’, and academicians’ interests in terms of vocabulary

learning.

Some of the multiplayer adventure games played by the participants were

Minecraft, Dying Light, It Takes Two, Valheim, Terraria, and Roblox. Based on the

findings, such games enable more frequent vocabulary learning compared to games

from other game mode and genre combinations. Multiplayer games provide learners

the opportunity to use previously learned vocabulary items actively in gaming

sessions. In adventure games, players typically end up learning various words such as

210

names of items through contextual understanding or using a dictionary. By combining

these two elements together, multiplayer adventure games help learners learn and

practice various vocabulary items. Learning vocabulary is noted as one of the key

opportunities provided by multiplayer adventure games. Based on the results, this

learning not only occurs as passive vocabulary acquisition, but also as practicing

previously learned vocabulary to turn passive vocabulary into active vocabulary

knowledge. In such games, certain limitations should be noted such as not playing the

game in the target language and not playing the game with people from other countries.

The first limitation hinders acquisition of words in the target language and the second

one restricts learners from practicing these vocabulary items by writing to or speaking

with other speakers of the target language. Therefore, these should be avoided if

vocabulary learning is to be maximized as a result of playing these games. Players are

advised to use their previously learned vocabulary knowledge actively in these games.

The findings indicate that the best alternative for frequent vocabulary learning

to multiplayer adventure games are single-player role-playing games. Role-playing

games are characterized by following the story of a main character in pursuit of

completing the storyline through various quests. This storyline often requires players

to read and listen to a number of extended dialogues and monologues. Players are

required to understand these dialogues and monologues, which often provide key

information in the completion of quests to proceed through the game. Although

knowing all the vocabulary items is not often necessary for the player to proceed

through the storyline, understanding the majority is a must either for enjoying the

content more, or for simply carrying out what is necessary. As noted earlier,

multiplayer games have an advantage over single-player games in terms of vocabulary

in enabling players to actively learn what is learned during the game or previously in

gaming sessions. But one important advantage for single-player games is that they are

not real-time. Players can stop and take their time for anything while playing single-

player games. Although they may not have the opportunity to use vocabulary actively

by writing messages and using the microphone, they do have the opportunity to stop

and look up any unknown words, which gives a unique advantage in increasing the

number of words that are acquired during gaming sessions.

Some single-player role-playing games noted commonly by the participants

were The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, Mount & Blade:

Warband, Fallout, and Cyberpunk 2077. The findings indicate that these games often

211

require players to learn vocabulary items through their complex storylines. As noted

earlier, single-player games enable players to take their time to learn vocabulary items,

and role-playing games often present a rich storyline which necessitates players to stop

from time to time to check the meaning of some words, regardless of their proficiency

levels. This combination creates a beneficial environment for gamers to acquire a

number of vocabulary items related to various concepts. Single-player role-play

gamers are recommended to use their knowledge actively through the storyline to

enhance understanding of the content. Some limitations that can be expected in role-

playing games are the use of archaic language, possibly due to the fantasy setting in

many role-playing games, and potential confusion with excessive content in games.

Some learners, especially high-proficiency ones, may enjoy such content. Learners

with lower proficiency levels can choose to focus on vocabulary items that matter the

most in the understanding of content such as dialogues and quest explanations by

trying to learn what is necessary to understand these and skipping those that do not

hinder the progressing and overall understanding of the storyline.

5.3.2. Grammar Learning

In terms of grammar learning, the ideal game mode and genre combination was

single-player role-playing games based on the findings. Role-playing games require

learners to understand several elements such as dialogues, monologues, and quests.

Players often put an effort to understand the storyline in order to enjoy the game more.

However, understanding the storyline and its storyline is also a must simply to proceed

through the game by comprehending what needs to be done in order to complete quests

and move forward. Just like understanding key vocabulary items, an accurate

understanding of the content also relies on comprehending the grammar structures.

This often necessitates for players to put an effort into understanding the grammar

usages either implicitly through the context or explicitly by looking them up. The key

elements of role-playing games such as the criticality of decision-making processes

which can influence the procedure and the outcome of the game and complex character

development also entails a need for a good understanding of grammar structures.

Single-player games usually offer players the opportunity to take their time to do either

or both in gaming sessions without any time limitations by pausing or just waiting.

Taking these into consideration, it can be stated that single-player role-playing games

212

are an ideal choice for practical and academic interest in learning grammar through

computer games.

Games that are commonly preferred by participants in this game mode and

genre combination are The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim,

Mount & Blade: Warband, Fallout, and Cyberpunk 2077. In such games, players strive

to understand the content accurately, and this often leads to learning of grammar

structures along with vocabulary items. As noted earlier, a total understanding of the

content may not be a must for these games to proceed. However, understanding the

key points is necessary, and just like in many game mode and genre combinations, this

sometimes requires the player to learn grammar structures implicitly or explicitly.

Since role-playing games help learners get exposed to lots of interaction between in-

game characters through a sophisticated storyline with rich quests and dialogues,

players typically encounter diverse grammar structures throughout the game. Gamers

can not only learn new grammar structures through these expositions, but also practice

previously learned grammar structures based on the suggestions of the participants.

The limitation of potential encounters with archaic usages may not be as much of a

problem in grammar as it is for vocabulary in these games. But the limitation with

excessive content may discourage learners from focusing on unknown structures.

Similar with vocabulary, players can choose to focus on learning key structures for

understanding the storyline when they are faced with such a situation.

The best alternative to single-player role-playing games in learning grammar

was identified as single-player adventure games based on the findings. Adventure

games share several elements with role-playing games. They typically involve a

storyline and tasks to be carried out through this storyline. The main difference is that

they are often more oriented towards problem solving and exploring instead of

complex character development and decision-making. Understanding written and oral

hints that are provided to the player for solving problems in an accurate way is as

important and necessary in these games as the elements such as decision making and

completion of quests of role-playing. Similar to single-player role-playing games, the

single-player also enables adventure gamers to take their time through pauses or

waiting to try to understand any potential unknown grammar structures, which is a

facilitating factor for the learning of grammar items.

Some single-player adventure games that were commonly noted by the

participants were the Walking Dead, Tomb Raider, the Last of Us, and Uncharted.

213

These games can be preferred for practical and academic interests in target language

grammar learning. The repetition of similar grammar structures through the storyline

is noted as a considerable advantage for grammar learning in these games. This is also

meaningful since learning vocabulary and grammar are identified as important

opportunities provided by such games. An important limitation is that these games do

not usually provide players with the opportunity to practice writing and speaking. This

can mean that grammar structures that are acquired in these games may remain passive

due to excessive use in reading and listening, but not available for use by writing and

speaking. Learners can put an effort into using these structures in other parts of their

lives to make these structures more easily available for themselves by writing and

speaking. Players of these games are recommended to focus on learning as well as

having fun and play different types of games based on participant responses. These

recommendations are quite meaningful for complementary reasons. For example, the

acquisition of structures through the rich content provided by these games can be

actively used in some multiplayer games. Similarly, developing a mentality of learning

and having fun is a must for getting an optimum benefit from computer games in terms

of language learning.

5.3.3. Reading Practice

The findings indicate that the ideal combination for reading practice was

single-player role-playing games. With various and extended content available for

reading in role-playing games such as texts of quests and subtitles of dialogues

between in-game characters, role-playing games provide valuable and frequent

opportunities for reading practice. As noted earlier, role-playing games are built

around character development and completion of quests in a complicated storyline

with loads of decision making and dialogues. Reading is critical for each of these key

elements. Players need to read and understand the abilities of characters to build their

character in a certain way. This usually continues throughout the storyline up until the

final quests, and in many cases even after that. These games also present players with

many quests to be completed, often accompanied by several hints about how to

complete them. Understanding them through effective reading is a must for the

storyline to proceed. The hints can sometimes be provided by a quest log, or in some

cases they can be provided by non-playable characters. In these cases, players may

214

need to end up reading conversations between the main character and other characters

several times to understand any hints. When it comes to decision making, the player

needs to read many response options in role-playing games carefully since these

decisions may significantly impact how the storyline continues and may change the

course of it minimally or maximally. All these elements and many others contribute to

the diverse opportunities for reading practice in role-playing games. The opportunity

to take as much time as possible in single-player games in many cases gives the player

the chance to read these types of content as long and as many times as possible, which

also leads to increased reading practice. Considering these points, it is worth focusing

on single-player games academically and practically in terms of target language

reading practice.

In games such as The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim,

Mount & Blade: Warband, Fallout, and Cyberpunk 2077, players have the potential

and the necessity to be involved in reading tasks like the ones explained above. Some

common activities of reading include reading subtitles of dialogues and monologues,

main quests of the game itself or side quests provided by non-playable characters,

response options encountered in the storyline, details of items, details of skills, other

in-game texts such as books or letters in the form of items and so on. The fact that

many of these reading sources in the game are somehow connected to each other in

the storyline increases the need for effective reading and comprehension in these

games. In these games, one quest is often connected to the previous one and the next

one, some items and skills are the key to completing certain quests, hints that are

provided through logs or the characters are important for the successful completion of

quests, and additional reading materials such as books and letters are crucial for a

better understanding of the lore of a game. Similar to the previous limitations, the use

of archaic language can be a hindrance while practicing reading in these games.

Players can overcome this problem by using a translator when they feel that they are

overwhelmed by a specific text in the game by taking a pause, which is mostly possible

in most single-player games. Excessive content can be another concern, especially for

low-proficiency gamers. In such situations, gamers can ignore additional reading

materials in the game and focus only on main quests and related content to decrease

the reading content to a manageable level. Using what is previously learned to

understand texts at a better level while reading can be a great advantage, especially if

a player is actively taking English classes and can find some similarities between the

215

course content and game content, such as reading strategies and reading subskills, to

understand readable content more effectively.

The best alternative to single-player role-playing games was identified to be

single-player adventure games based on the findings. Since adventure games are

oriented towards problem-solving, reading is an inherent component of these games.

Solving problems and exploring a world through various objectives along a storyline

requires reading a number of textual content in the form of dialogues, monologues,

explanations, and hints, and this in-turn leads to frequent reading practice. One more

genre that might rival single-player adventure games is single-player action games.

Single-player action games had less reading frequency than single-player adventure

games according to questionnaire responses but had more reading duration according

to observation. Single-player action games do not typically involve extended texts to

be read by players. However, as in the case of the present observation, they can involve

numerous dialogues among players and these dialogues are almost always

accompanied by subtitles that are read by players. Single-player adventure games were

identified as the best alternative for reading practice based on the statistical outcome

in both data sources, the diversity of reading activities involved, and better

compatibility with single-player games in terms of reading practice. Adventure games

involve more varied reading activities compared to action games, and activities such

as reading game content and game elements align better with single-player game mode

since players can take their time to read game content and elements in a single instance

without having to replay whole conversations or skipping scenes to see a certain

exchange, as in the case of reading dialogues.

Games such as the Walking Dead, Tomb Raider, the Last of Us, and Uncharted

offer players various dialogues and game content that can be read by players in real-

time or non-real-time. Players can read subtitles of dialogues, speech bubbles of

characters, settings of the game, instructions provided to players for solving problems,

and response options while having a conversation with an in-game character. These

actions provide plenty of opportunities for reading practice. Practicing reading is

identified as one of the main advantages of adventure games in the findings of the

study. Players are recommended to use a dictionary while playing adventure games,

which is an effective way of increasing reading comprehension during games. When

they struggle with a sentence due to reasons beyond unknown words or grammar

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structures, players can also use a translator to check for their understanding and make

comparisons.

5.3.4. Listening Practice

The findings indicate that the ideal game-mode and genre combination for

listening practice is multiplayer action games. Action games rely on physical response

and eye-hand coordination in the completion of in-game objectives. The in-game

objectives can present players with various listening content such as monologues or

dialogues of in-game characters. However, the main source of listening practice is not

the in-game content, but the oral input provided by other players in a team. The vast

majority of listening activities that take place in multiplayer action games result from

the player listening to the other players in the completion of in-game objectives to

either pass levels in player versus environment games, or to defeat the other team in

player versus player games. Multiplayer action games typically have a high tempo,

and they often require players to complete in-game objectives cooperatively in a

certain period of time. This in turn necessitates players to have fast-paced and accurate

communication with their teammates to achieve these in-game goals. The fact that

many multiplayer action games are played competitively based on some rank system

increases players’ willingness to win the game, and this is usually only possible

through an effective coordination of the team. This effective coordination relies on

accurate communication among players. This communication often takes place

through oral input which is provided with the help of microphones. Therefore, a player

playing action games can be expected to practice listening frequently. In fact, the

findings of the questionnaire indicate that listening frequency in multiplayer action

games is the highest learning and practice frequency that was uncovered in the present

study across all game mode and genre combinations in all target language knowledge

and skill types. This outcome is also supported by a high duration of listening practice

observed during the observation. In conclusion, multiplayer action games are

worthwhile for practical and academic considerations in practicing target language

listening skills.

Some commonly played multiplayer action games reported in the study

included Counter Strike: Global Offensive, Valorant, Call of Duty series, Grand Theft

Auto series, Fortnite, and Player Unknown’s Battlegrounds. Most of these games

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involve a competition between two teams. Players in the same team can write message

in team chat to communicate with one another. However, since these games are often

round based and time restricted, and writing messages takes much longer than saying

something, the great majority of players choose to use their microphone to

communicate with their teammates. This communication enables players to listen to

teammates talking about various things. These include teammates speaking to give

information about in-game situations, discussing strategies to adopt and tactics to

consider, expressing their feelings about things happening during the game, and

requesting courses of action from their teammates. Players can be expected to be

exposed to lots of listening practice due to the input provided by other players. These

characteristics leads to many opportunities offered by multiplayer action games to

arise such as meeting new people and having meaningful communication with them.

Some disadvantages that should be considered here are not paying attention to

language use and swear words. Based on the findings, not paying attention to language

use can lead to minimal understanding in communication, which can have an impact

on both in-game achievement and language development. Players should be advised

to pay attention to how language is used while listening and ask for clarification from

other players whenever something is not understood. On another hand, the use of swear

words by some players can be a restriction for communication in some gaming

sessions. Luckily, players have the opportunity to mute these players in order to avoid

any type of communication with them. They can focus on their communication with

other teammates in the team to maximize their listening practice without the

intervention of any toxic input or behavior. Multiplayer action gamers are

recommended to make use of previously learned structures in their gaming sessions,

and this could be relevant for listening, as well. Listening teammates using vocabulary

items or grammar structures that are previously learned could enhance language

learning outcome in these games. Another suggestion is to watch the movie adaptation

of games. This might diversify the types of listening practice experienced by gamers.

The best alternative to multiplayer online action games for listening practice is

identified as single-player role-playing games based on the findings of the study. Role-

playing games inherently involve a multitude of listening content, most of which are

in the form of monologues and dialogues of in-game characters. The main difference

between multiplayer action games and single-player role-playing games is the type of

listening that players are exposed to in-gaming sessions. Whereas multiplayer action

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games rely on spoken input provided by other players in the team to the player, role-

playing games depend on the speech provided by in-game characters through voice

actors. The former can provide more authentic and real-life listening content which

can possibly involve more colloquial or incorrect usages. The latter, on the other hand,

can involve more structured and less flexible listening content with more formal and

correct usages in it. Another notable is the duration of listening practice in these

different game mode and genre combinations. Whereas listening activities in

multiplayer action games are more frequent but shorter in duration, listening activities

in single-player role playing games are fewer in frequency but longer in duration. All

in all, it can be stated that a combination of being exposed to listening practice in both

multiplayer action games and single-player role-playing games can be a good way of

listening improvement for gamer learners of English with their focus on listening

content in different types and ways.

Games such as The Witcher 3: The Wild Hunt, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim,

Mount & Blade: Warband, Fallout, and Cyberpunk 2077 offer players listening

content and frequent opportunities for listening practice related to various topics and

situations. Players spending time on these games are often exposed to listening practice

via listening to narrators, characters, and other in-game features. In role-playing

games, there are numerous dialogues between in-game characters, and this is a good

way of listening to conversational usage of English. Besides these, players can listen

to more monologue-oriented listening content such as explanations of quests by the

game itself or through a certain character. Although players mostly do not have the

opportunity to interact with characters in single-player role-playing games, they at

least have the opportunity to be exposed to in-game characters with each other. This

type of listening may also contribute to conversational abilities of players indirectly.

Single-player role-playing gamers are recommended to use their previously learned

knowledge in these games and lengthy listening content with the use of complex

vocabulary and grammar structures is a good source of enabling this. Excessive

content might be a challenge for lower-proficiency learners, but such learners often

have the ability to play interactions between players or cutscenes multiple times in

single-player role-playing games. Therefore, when they feel the need, players can

replay listening content in these games until they understand the content at a

satisfactory level.

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5.3.5. Writing Practice

Writing stands out as the least practiced language skill in computer games

regardless of game mode and genre combinations. However, even with this outcome,

writing can sometimes be practiced in certain game mode and genre combinations.

Among these, the ideal combination is multiplayer adventure games based on overall

findings. Adventure games require players to do be involved in profound levels of

problem solving and exploration. In multiplayer games, this requires players to

communicate with other players for cooperation in pursuit of completing in-game

objectives. Sometimes, this communication is realized through a chat box through

which players in the same game can communicate with one another. This can either

result from a personal preference of a player to communicate with others not via a

microphone but by writing messages due to various reasons such as being shy or not

feeling competent enough in speaking in the target language, or it might be a necessity

owing to situations such as players not having necessary equipment for oral

communication in the game. Also, players may choose to write messages to teammates

in some instances and speak to them in some others. For example, in a critical situation,

microphone communication can distract the focus of players, so they may choose to

write messages to minimize distractions. Due to such features and opportunities, it is

worth paying attention to writing practice in multiplayer adventure games from

practical and academic perspectives.

Games such as Minecraft, Dying Light, It Takes Two, Valheim, Terraria, and

Roblox enable players to communicate among themselves through a chat box. Players

communicate with each other by writing messages to ask questions about in-game

situations or trivial matters, respond to input provided by other players, and giving

information about their progress in solving an in-game problem. Adventure games

were highlighted for valuable opportunities for learning vocabulary and grammar

structures. Multiplayer adventure games can contribute to this at an additional level by

enabling players to actively use the vocabulary items and grammar structures that were

previously learned. Despite the fact that potential for practice in this skill is remarkably

lower compared to other target language skills, the usage of vocabulary items and

grammar structures through writing can lead to meaningful use of the language in an

authentic communicative environment. Lack of writing is noted as one of the

challenges of adventure games under single-player game mode, but multiplayer game

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mode seems to eliminate this limitation to a certain extent based on the findings. The

most important limitation here is not to play the game with players from other countries

and not to play the game in the target language. This significantly reduces the chances

of players to be involved in meaningful written communication in the target language,

and therefore, should be avoided. Socialization is an important advantage in

multiplayer adventure games and written communication can get more extended along

with oral communication as the level of socialization increases throughout the gaming

process.

The best alternative to multiplayer adventure games in writing practice is

identified as multiplayer role-playing games based on the findings. Role-playing

games often follow a complex storyline which features a number of quests to be

completed. In single-player games, players rely on their personal understanding of how

the quest needs to be completed and their own performance in the completion of this

quest. However, in multiplayer role-playing games, many quests cannot be possibly or

preferably completed by an individual player. Most quests require an effective

cooperation of various players to be completed. In this cooperation, communication

among players is of vital importance. It is a fact that nowadays this communication

mostly takes place in the form of audio input from players via microphones. However,

this communication can also take place in the form of written messages in a chat box

which is available to all players in a team. In addition to this, multiplayer role-playing

games can involve complex relations among a team of players due to their extended

nature. Multiplayer role-playing games can be played for many years on the same

server with the same group of players. Therefore, it is likely for players to develop

friendship over this period and increase their communication, not only related to in-

game issues, but also daily and personal matters. This communication can also take

place in the form of private messages and chat messages, which can increase the

writing practice of players. Due to such features, multiplayer role-playing games can

sometimes enable players to practice their writing and they are worth considering at

practical and academic level to this end.

Games noted by the participants such as World of Warcraft, Sea of Thieves,

Grand Theft Auto: V, EVE Online, Lost Ark enable players to practice their writing

skills via various means. This can happen either with a preference of writing to

communicate over speaking, or a personal feeling of necessity by players to

communicate in writing instead of speaking until feeling ready to speak confidently in

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the target language. An authentic and meaningful environment of communication is

certainly a contributing factor for writing practice in multiplayer role-playing games.

Certain limitations of these games that are worth mentioning are addiction and

complex structures. Potential for addiction is an important possibility to consider and

avoid in multiplayer role-playing games. Due to their extended nature, players may

feel the urge to play the game more than necessary, which can lead to harmful gaming

habits. Players need to take their gaming hours into consideration, and not go beyond

gaming hours that would cause trouble in the usual progress of their daily lives or the

fulfillment of their daily chores. Complex grammar structures, on the other hand, are

not usually a limitation for writing, since players do not choose to use too complex

structures in order to avoid any kind of communication barriers in these games. Players

are recommended to take notes in these games. This note-taking can improve writing

performance not only by the activity itself, but also by giving players a chance to

increase the items and structures that they can actively use while writing.

5.3.6. Speaking Practice

The ideal game mode and genre combination for practicing speaking is

uncovered as multiplayer action games according to the findings. In action games,

players use their physical capabilities such as quick response time and hand-eye

coordination to complete in-game objectives. In single-player game mode, players can

simply rely on these skills to display a satisfactory performance. However, in

multiplayer action games, demonstrating a good level of individual performance is not

usually enough in achieving the intended outcomes. Multiplayer action games are

mostly team-based. This means players compete against another team to win the game.

This usually requires a decent level of individual performance along with effective

communication within the team. Multiplayer action games are also generally time-

restricted. The competition takes place within rounds with certain, and often relatively

short, time periods. When combined together, these features require players to have

fluent and accurate communication with their teammates to achieve the best possible

outcome. Therefore, speaking as fluently and as understandably as possible via a

microphone is the most common means of communication in multiplayer action

games. Players need to be fluent as they may need to explain s things like strategies

and current status in a matter of a couple of seconds in the game. They also need to be

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as accurate and understandable as possible since the information that they provide

might hold the key to winning a specific round. Due to reasons such as these,

multiplayer action games are worth practical and academic attention in terms of

practicing target language speaking.

Common games noted by the participants, such as Counter Strike: Global

Offensive, Valorant, Call of Duty series, Grand Theft Auto series, Fortnite, and Player

Unknown’s Battlegrounds, provide learners the opportunity to practice their speaking

skills. This speaking often takes place in the form of giving information about the

enemy team, requesting certain courses of actions such as sharing in-game items and

performing moves, discussing strategies or courses of action prior to the beginning of

rounds or during the rounds, and expressing feelings such as complimenting a

teammate over a well-played situation or expressing frustration for something

unwanted during the game. The findings of the study indicate several advantages of

multiplayer action games, such as trying to use target language accurately and asking

questions, which are directly related to practicing speaking. Just like giving

information, requesting information and in-game actions quickly and effectively is a

key component in action games. Similarly, trying to use the target language accurately

is crucial since any misinformation can cost a team the round. Not paying attention to

language use is a notable limitation to consider for speaking practice in multiplayer

action games. Doing so reduces the chances for speaking improvement, which

diminishes both in-game success and language development. The core

recommendation for gamer language learners playing multiplayer action games is

being determined to use previously learned structures during gameplay. This can create

a connection between any other language learning activities that players are involved

in in their daily lives and their language practicing in multiplayer action games, and

therefore lead to further and more effective language practice.

The findings show that the best alternative to multiplayer action games in

practicing speaking are multiplayer adventure games. With their focus on problem

solving and exploration, adventure games present players with a number of challenges

to be overcome in gaming sessions. Whereas players face these challenges on their

own in single-player adventure games, it is often necessary for players to communicate

with other players in the course of overcoming these challenges in multiplayer

adventure games. In these days, the preferred method of realizing this communication

is using a microphone via the in-game communication system. Many multiplayer

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adventure games present players with such a feature. In cases where such a feature is

not available, players tend to use a third-party audio communication software such as

Discord to enable audio communication. In multiplayer adventure games, players

cooperate to solve in-game problems by discussing moves and strategies.

Occasionally, they are also engaged in non-game-related conversations. Both these

provide players the opportunity to practice target language speaking frequently.

Commonly played multiplayer adventure games like Minecraft, Dying Light,

It Takes Two, Valheim, Terraria, and Roblox either enable players to speak with one

another through their own communication system or the players of these games can

choose to use a third-party communication software for audio chat. Players can speak

to ask questions to other players, respond to questions asked by other players, give

information to their teammates about in-game situations, suggest strategies and plans

to pass levels, express their feelings like frustration and compliments, and talk about

non-game-related issues like movies. These activities of speaking enable the core

opportunities of adventure games such as learning vocabulary and grammar to move

from passive knowledge to active practice, and therefore provide this a new dimension.

The opportunities for socialization are certainly a contributing factor to the practicing

of speaking in multiplayer adventure games. Besides these, practicing speaking is

identified as a notable opportunity of multiplayer adventure games, which is also an

important point to consider based on the findings of the study. Notable limitations that

might inhibit speaking practice are not playing the game in the target language and

with people from different countries. This might considerably restrict the chances of

meeting speakers of English in the game, and thus lower the opportunities for speaking

practice in the target language. Multiplayer adventure gamers are recommended to use

previously learned knowledge actively.

5.4. Discussion of the Findings in View of Existing Literature

5.4.1. Discussion of the Findings Related to Game Mode Comparison in

View of Existing Literature

The findings as a whole mostly indicate parallelism with the theoretical

background of computer games and language learning. Regardless of game mode and

genre combinations, there are considerable levels of target language learning and

practicing based on the responses of the participants. The participant responses

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demonstrate that the most common frequencies for learning target language

knowledge and practicing target language skills are often and sometimes. This

indicates that learning target language knowledge and practicing target language skills

take place in most game modes and genres with varying degrees. This demonstrates

that computer games with different game modes and genres as a whole can be valuable

for learning target language and practicing target language skills, which is in alignment

with studies in the literature for target language learning and practicing (McCabe &

Meller, 2004; Kraemer et al., 2009; Hall, 2010; Gruber & Kaplan-Rakowski, 2022).

In terms of vocabulary learning, the findings do not contradict the existing

literature because existing studies focus both on predominantly single-player games

and predominantly multiplayer ones. The studies into vocabulary learning in

predominantly single-player games such the ones by Palmberg (1988) on Pirate Cove;

Purushtoma’s (2005), Miller and Hegelheimer (2006), Ranalli (2008), Noroozloo et

al. (2015) on The Sims; Bakar and Nosratirad (2013) on The Sims 3; Franciosi et al.

(2016) on 3rd World Farmer, Franciosi (2017) on Energy City; Vahdat and Behbahani

(2013) on Runaway: A Road Adventure; Enayat and Haghighatpasand (2019) on The

Secret of the Monkey Island – Special Edition; DeHaan et al. (2010) on PaRappa the

Rapper II indicate several positive outcomes regarding target language vocabulary

learning. Similarly, studies conducted on multiplayer games such as the ones carried

out by Rankin et al. (2006) and Rankin et al. (2009) on EverQuest II; and Bytheway

(2015) on World of Warcraft underline positive outcomes for target language

vocabulary learning in multiplayer games. There are also similar findings in the

literature about games that are actively played with both single-player and multiplayer

game modes. These include Urun et al.’s (2017) study on Tom Clancy’s Ghost Recon:

Future Soldier and Ebrahimzadeh and Alavi’s study on (2017) on Warcraft III: Frozen

Throne. The existence of positive findings in both game modes and the outcome in the

present study that no significant difference was observed in vocabulary learning

between single-player and multiplayer game modes corroborate each other.

In grammar learning, the situation is similar with vocabulary learning in that a

considerable difference in the number of studies and findings focusing on single-player

and multiplayer games does not seem to be existing. In terms of grammar learning, not

as many articles as those that focus on vocabulary learning exist, and the existing

findings refer both to predominantly single-player games, predominantly multiplayer

games, and games that prime both game modes. Findings on single-player-oriented

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games such as The Sims and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City point to positive outcomes

for grammar learning in single-player games, findings on multiplayer-oriented games

like Knight Online and Counter Strike indicate benefits of multiplayer games on

grammar learning, and findings on games that have orientation in both game modes

such as Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos and FIFA 08 also demonstrate advantages for

grammar learning (Miller & Hegelheimer, 2006; Turgut & İrgin, 2009). Considering

the literature review of the present study, a considerable difference in the focus on

game mode in studies referring to grammar learning in computer games cannot be

observed. Therefore, it can be stated that the fact that no significant difference was

observed between single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of grammar

learning in the present study is in line with the studies in the literature. In addition to

this, grammar learning was reported to be less frequent than vocabulary learning in

each game mode in all the genres. Considering the number of studies and the positive

findings related to vocabulary learning and grammar learning in the literature, the

findings of the present study are aligned with the existing literature from this point, as

well.

When it comes to reading, the literature review indicates beneficial findings

with both game modes although most of the studies reporting findings about reading

are from studies focusing on single-player games. Practice and improvement in target

language reading is highlighted both in studies dwelling on single-player games such

as Sim City and Bone, (Taylor, 1990; Baltra, 1990; Jordan, 1992; Chen & Yang; 2011,

2013; Neville et al., 2009; Sarı & Chen, 2013) and those focusing on multiplayer

games such as EverQuest II and World of Warcraft (Rankin et al., 2009; Zheng, 2016).

Considering the findings of the questionnaire and the observation, the answer to the

research question focusing on the difference between single-player and multiplayer

game modes in reading could not be answered positively. However, despite the

presence of findings indicating both positive and negative outcomes for this research

question, the ones pointing towards a considerable difference favoring the single-

player game mode in reading practice were more in quantity than those favoring the

multiplayer game mode. The study seems to be in alignment with the existing literature

here in that the literature review shows positive findings related to reading practice in

both game modes with findings focusing on predominantly single-player games being

more in number compared to those with multiplayer game mode.

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Regarding listening, studies in literature report advantages both in single-

player and multiplayer game modes, just like reading. However, in listening, the

positive findings in studies focusing on multiplayer games are more in number

compared to reading. There are studies in literature focusing on multiplayer games

which point to several activities in which target language listening is practiced (Rankin

et al., 2009; Zheng, 2016, Kongmee et al., 2012), just as there are studies focusing on

single-player games reporting improvement in listening skills (Taylor, 1990; Baltra,

1990; Chen & Yang; 2011). In addition to the previously noted games such as

EverQuest II, World of Warcraft, Sim City, and Bone, the reports on listening also

involve the MMORPGs GodsWar Online, Hello Kitty Online, Perfect World

International, and Asda Story. Listening was also found to be significantly improved

in multiplayer online games including Counter Strike: Global Offensive, League of

Legends, Player Unknown’s Battlegrounds, RuneScape, and Seafight (Altınbaş, 2018).

There are also some studies reporting benefits for listening in miscellaneous games

such as the one conducted by De Wilde and Eyckmans (2017). The findings

corroborate the existing findings in the literature since the answer to the fourth research

question comparing single-player and multiplayer games in terms of the frequency of

listening practice was answered negatively, and the literature review has a relatively

balanced number of studies referring to listening benefits for listening in computer

games with single-player and multiplayer game mode.

In terms of writing, the outcome for the study is not completely in alignment

with existing literature. The studies that highlight benefits for writing in literature are

usually the ones either focusing on single-player games or the ones not referring to

specific games. These include Taylor’s (1990) Sim City, Baltra’s (1990) study on

adventure games, Jordan’s (1992) study on simulation and adventure games, and De

Wilde and Eyckmans’s (2017) study on games and other similar tools. These studies

report benefits of games for writing not through the game itself but through game-

related activities such as follow-up writing activities in the form of writing reports of

games and writing essays based on game-based activities. The studies do not

specifically point out writing practice carried out in gaming sessions. The only one

that specifically points to an improvement in writing through the game itself is

Shahrokni’s (2020) paper, which focuses on the massively multiplayer strategy game

Stronghold Kingdoms. The study specifically highlights writing improvement through

in-game communication via chatting which are carried out to realize in-game goals

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and strategies. The findings of the present study indicate that there is a significant

difference between single-player and multiplayer games in terms of practicing writing,

in favor of multiplayer games. Therefore, the results are only partially in line with the

literature taking a look at the studies in the literature reporting findings in terms of

target language writing practice and improvement in computer games.

When the findings of the present study regarding speaking practice are

evaluated from the perspective of the existing literature, it can be stated that the

situation is a bit similar to writing, but there are more studies indicating alignment

between the present findings and existing literature. Just like writing, there are studies

in the literature that normally dwell on the use of single-player games, but also

integrate speaking via game-related follow up activities instead of game-based

speaking activities that take place during gaming itself. These include the studies of

Taylor (1990), Baltra (1990), Jordan (1992), Chen and Yang (2011, 2013) on games

like Sim City and Bone. However, there are also several studies providing implications

of multiplayer games on speaking development such as studies of Zheng (2016) on

World of Warcraft, Reinders and Wattana (2015) on Ragnarok Online, and Shahrokni

(2020) on Stronghold Kingdoms. Just like listening, speaking was also found to be

significantly improved through multiplayer online games including Counter Strike:

Global Offensive, League of Legends, Player Unknown’s Battlegrounds, RuneScape,

and Seafight, as well (Altınbaş, 2018). Considering these findings, it can be stated that

the findings of the present study are in line with existing literature in stating that

speaking is practiced significantly more in multiplayer games than in single-player

games.

5.4.2. Discussion of the Findings Related to Genre Comparison in View of

Existing Literature

When the findings are compared with existing literature, there are both

similarities and differences. First of all, in terms of vocabulary learning, the findings

of the present study indicate that there is a significant difference among the genres,

resulting mainly from lower levels of vocabulary learning in the simulation genre.

However, it should be noted that this is only relative to other genres. Whereas the

median value for the frequency of learning vocabulary corresponded to often in the

other genres, the median value for vocabulary learning frequency in simulation games

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equaled to sometimes. Therefore, it can be stated based on participant responses that

vocabulary learning is not infrequent in computer games, only lower than the other

genres. From one perspective, it can be claimed that the study is in line with existing

literature since there are reports of vocabulary learning in every genre. The studies of

DeHaan et al. (2010) on PaRappa the Rapper II and Urun et al. on (2017) Tom

Clancy’s Ghost Recon: Future Soldier report vocabulary learning outcomes in action

games. The studies of Chen and Yang (2011, 2013) on Bone, Palmberg (1988) on

Pirate Cove, Vahdat and Behbahani (2013) on Runaway: A Road Adventure, and

Enayat and Haghighatpasand (2019) on The Secret of the Monkey Island – Special

Edition demonstrate similar findings for adventure games. Vocabulary learning

outcomes were also observed in role-playing games such as EverQuest II (Rankin et

al., 2006; Rankin et al. 2009) and World of Warcraft (Bytheway, 2015). In addition to

these, findings related to the strategy game Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos and its

expansion Warcraft III: the Frozen Throne by Turgut and İrgin (2009) and

Ebrahimzadeh and Alavi (2017) indicate vocabulary learning outcomes in strategy

genres. Finally, despite having a lower frequency of vocabulary learning based on

participant responses, the number of reports on vocabulary learning in simulation

games is higher than most of the other genres. Studies by Noroozloo et al. (2015) on

The Sims, Bakar and Nosratirad (2013) on The Sims 3, Franciosi et al. (2016) on 3rd

World Farmer, and Franciosi (2017) on Energy City highlight vocabulary learning

benefits in simulation games. When the studies covered in this study and their

outcomes are taken into consideration, it can be seen that adventure and simulation

genres received the most attention by researchers. However, while adventure has the

highest reports on vocabulary learning frequency according to the findings, simulation

genre has the lowest, which is an important difference to note.

Similar to vocabulary learning, the study uncovered that grammar learning

frequency also has significantly lower levels in simulation genre compared to other

genres. When the literature review is considered, there are reports of grammar learning

in every genre, but these reports are not as common as those on vocabulary learning.

Unlike vocabulary learning, the reports on grammar learning are more balanced in

terms of number across different genres. The findings regarding grammar learning on

specific computer games come from the study of Turgut and İrgin (2009) which

comprises findings regarding Knight Online, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, Counter-

Strike, Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, and FIFA 08. Regarding grammar, the findings

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corroborate the existing findings in some ways and conflict them in some others. For

example, compared to vocabulary learning, positive findings related to computer

games and grammar learning are much less common. Similar with this, among the

different target language knowledge and skill types investigated in this research,

grammar has the lowest levels of learning frequency. However, the findings of the

present study indicate a significant difference among the genres in terms of grammar

learning frequency mainly due to lower levels of learning in simulation games.

However, in literature, there does not seem to be a significant difference between this

genre and the other genres in terms of grammar learning. This is another outcome of

this research that is in contrast with the existing findings in the literature.

In terms of reading, again there are matching and mismatching points with

existing literature. It was uncovered in the study that there was a significant difference

between genres in terms of reading practice frequency and duration, and the main

reason for this difference was considerably lower levels of reading practice frequency

in simulation games, both in the questionnaire and in the observation. In addition to

this, role-playing games had the highest frequency and duration of reading practice in

both datasets. Based on the review in this study, most reports about improvements in

target language reading came from role-playing games. Studies by Rankin et al.

(2009), Kongmee et al. (2012), and Sarı and Chen (2013) which comprise games like

EverQuest II, GodsWar Online, Hello Kitty Online, Perfect World International, and

Asda Story indicate reading improvement in role-playing games. The present findings

are in alignment with the prevalence of such findings in the literature. There are also

reading benefits that were reported on different game genres. Examples include the

studies of Chen and Yang (2011, 2013) on the adventure game Bone, and Taylor

(1990) and Baltra (1990) on simulation games, such as Sim City. The present findings

are more aligned to the findings related to adventure games. Both in the questionnaire

and in the interview, there was a considerable level of reading practice in adventure

games. When it comes to simulation games, however, the situation was different.

Simulation games had the lowest level of reading practice not only in the questionnaire

but also in the interview. Whereas the other genres had the median frequency level of

often in reading practice frequency, simulation had sometimes, and the duration of

reading practice in the observation was at a negligible level. Still, the study did not

uncover that there is no reading practice in simulation games, at all. But it uncovered

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that it is at a lower level compared to other genres, and it is interesting that there are

several findings related to target language reading benefits in simulation games

whereas there are less or no on other genres such as action and strategy.

In listening, the study again has common grounds and differences with the

existing literature. In the findings, it was found that there was a considerable difference

among the genres in terms of listening frequency and duration mainly due to higher

listening levels in the action genre. Interestingly, no study dwelled specifically on the

benefits of listening in action games based on the literature review. Strategy games

weren’t focused within this perspective, as well. The findings have listening

improvement reports in adventure games (Chen & Yang, 2011, 2013), role-playing

games (Rankin et al., 2009; Kongmee et al., 2012), and simulation games (Taylor,

1990; Baltra, 1990). The present findings do not contradict the existing findings in the

literature since they indicate that listening practice is not infrequent in these genres.

For example, participants’ median response to listening practicing frequency is often

in adventure and role-playing genres, and sometimes in simulation genre. Similarly,

the observation findings also report unignorable lengths of listening practice in these

genres. However, it is interesting that the genre with the most listening practicing

outcomes has received the least amount of focus in the literature in terms of listening

practice along with strategy genre. Strategy is a bit more in alignment here because it

has lower listening practice compared to action, adventure, and role-playing genres

with sometimes as the participants’ median response in the questionnaire and

observation duration being lower than the three genres noted. However, both its the

mean outcome for practice frequency in the questionnaire and its practice duration in

the observation are higher than the simulation genre. Therefore, the fact that there is

not enough focus on this genre in literature is also an important point for consideration.

The comparison of findings in the study and the literature are similar in writing,

as well. In some points there are common grounds, but in others there are differences.

The findings of the questionnaire uncovered that there is a significant difference

among the genres in terms of writing, too. The main contributors of this outcome were

higher levels of writing practice in strategy genre and lower levels in simulation genre.

In contrast with these, observation findings did not reveal a considerable difference

among the genres, and the duration was in negligible amounts in all the genres.

Another important outcome was that writing is the language skill with the least amount

of practicing frequency and duration in all game modes and genres. Compared to other

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language skills, specific focus on writing practice and improvement is less prevalent

in literature compared to other target language knowledge and skill types. This might

be related to fewer opportunities to write in games or the preference of gamers to speak

more instead of writing messages in many games, as the results demonstrate. The

literature demonstrates writing practice or improvement in adventure games (Baltra,

1990), strategy games (Shahrokni et al., 2020), and simulation games (Taylor, 1990).

Both in strategy and simulation genres, the genres with the highest and lowest

frequency of practice according to present findings, have evidence of practice

according to the studies in the literature. However, an important point to note here is

that, among the studies noted above, the study on the strategy game involved in-game

writing activities whereas the studies the adventure and simulation games referred

mostly to follow-up writing activities. This can provide implications regarding in-

game writing practice of gamers and classroom use of games in follow-up activities

during the class. Considering the number of studies focusing of the issue compared to

other knowledge and skill types, and the content of the existing findings, it can be

stated that the results are mostly parallel except for the findings of the questionnaire,

in which writing practice was too infrequently observed in quite short durations.

Similar to other skills, there are aligning and non-aligning points of the

present findings with the existing literature in terms of speaking. The present study

uncovered that there was a significant difference among the genres in terms of the

frequency and the duration of speaking practice, mainly due to higher levels of

speaking practice in action games compared to other genres. This was not only the

case for the questionnaire, but also the case for the observations. The literature

demonstrates speaking practice and gains mainly in role-playing and simulation games

such as Sim City and Ragnarok Online (Baltra, 1990; Taylor, 1990; De Wilde &

Eyckmans, 2017; Reinders & Wattana, 2015). The outcomes of the present study

indicate the median speaking frequency level of rarely in role-playing and simulation

games in the questionnaire. Therefore, the little amount of focus on in-game speaking

activities in specific games among the studies covered in the literature might be related

to this situation. It is interesting to note that none of the games putting their focus on

an action game put its focus as speaking practice and development in action games.

The present study indicates a stark difference in this genre and the other genres in

terms of opportunities of speaking practice based on the reports of the participants and

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the observations of game streams. This could be regarded as the most important

difference between the findings of the study and the existing findings in literature.

5.4.3. Discussion of the Findings Related to Target Language Knowledge

and Skills Comparison in View of Existing Literature

The findings about the action genre are only partially in agreement with the

existing literature. First of all, there is not enough focus on action games and listening

development in literature. Based on all the outcomes of the present study, action games

have the highest potential for listening practice. However, there haven’t been enough

studies on this issue in literature. Besides listening, reading practice have also not been

covered adequately in action games. The only point that has been subject to some

investigation in action games is vocabulary learning, which has been subject to studies

from all genres of computer games. DeHaan et al.’s (2010) study on PaRappa the

Rapper II and Urun et al.’s (2017) study on Tom Clancy’s Ghost Recon: Future Soldier

are examples to this. When it comes to knowledge and skill types that are learned and

practiced less frequently, there are almost as many studies in literature as ones with

higher levels of learning and practice frequency. For example, Turgut and İrgin’s

(2009) study, which covers action games like Counter Strike and Grand Theft Auto:

Vice City has implications for grammar learning in action games.

Regarding the other genres, the findings are more in alignment with the

literature, but still, there is no complete parallelism. First of all, there are a number of

studies in literature which demonstrate vocabulary-related benefits of computer

games. These include the studies of Chen and Yang (2011, 2013) on Bone, Palmberg

(1988) on Pirate Cove, Vahdat and Behbahani (2013) on Runaway: A Road Adventure,

and Enayat and Haghighatpasand (2019) on The Secret of the Monkey Island – Special

Edition in adventure games; the studies of Rankin et al. (2006) and Rankin et al.

(2009) on EverQuest II, and Bytheway (2015) on World of Warcraft in role-playing

games; Turgut and İrgin (2009) on Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos and Ebrahimzadeh

and Alavi (2017) on its expansion Warcraft III: the Frozen Throne in strategy games;

and Noroozloo et al. (2015) on The Sims, Bakar and Nosratirad (2013) on The Sims

3, Franciosi et al. (2016) on 3rd World Farmer, and Franciosi (2017) on Energy City

in simulation games. In terms of reading and listening, the studies that focus on or have

implications for these are not as plentiful as vocabulary learning, yet they are not fewer

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than grammar learning, writing practice, and speaking practice. Studies by Baltra

(1990), Taylor (1990), Rankin et al. (2009), Chen and Yang (2011, 2013), Kongmee

et al. (2012), and Sarı and Chen (2013) on games like EverQuest II, GodsWar Online,

Hello Kitty Online, Perfect World International, Asda Story, and Sim City provide

implications for reading and/or listening practice in games with different genres. Some

but not all of these studies also have implications for writing and speaking. It should

also be noted that several findings regarding writing practice are about game-related

activities of practice instead of game-based activities of practice. Considering the

higher interest and findings related to vocabulary learning, reading practice, and

listening practice in the literature compared to grammar learning, writing practice, and

speaking practice, it can be stated that the findings of the present study in terms of the

comparison of target language knowledge and skills in games are mostly in line with

existing literature.

5.4.4. Discussion of the Findings Related to Activities of Target Language

Learning and Practicing in View of Existing Literature

In terms of reading, the main activities were reading subtitles, reading game

content, and reading messages. Whereas reading mostly took place in the form of

reading subtitles and reading game content in single-player games, most of the reading

was related to reading messages in multiplayer games. The situation was mostly the

same across the genres, excluding simulation games, where all the types of reading

were not observed. When it comes to listening, single-player games were similar to

reading, due mainly to listening activities being in parallel with reading activities

through subtitles. Therefore, listening to monologues and dialogues, and in-game

content were the most prevalent activities in this game mode. In multiplayer games,

types of listening activities were more varied with frequent examples of examples such

as giving information, asking, responding, discussing, expressing feelings, explaining,

suggesting, warning, joking and similar actions. An important outcome here was

longer listening durations and lower frequency of listening activities in single-player

games, and shorter listening durations and higher frequency of listening activities in

multiplayer games. The situation was mostly the same across genres. Writing was the

skill that was practiced the least, with only being evident in small amounts in

multiplayer adventure and strategy games. The instances of writing included players

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giving information, responding, asking, and expressing feelings. Apart from these, no

instances were observed. Finally, speaking was quite parallel to the types of listening

activities in multiplayer games in addition to some instances from single-player games.

In single-player games the types of speaking activities observed were repetition,

reading-aloud, and talking to in-game characters, which involved players talking to

themselves. In multiplayer games, speaking activities involved giving information,

discussing, expressing feelings, explaining, suggesting, warning, off-topic

conversation, asking, responding, and so forth. The situation was mostly similar across

genres, except for simulation where speaking activities were negligible.

The activities that were identified as a result of the analyses were mostly

parallel with the theoretical backgrounds of computer games and language learning.

The exposure to target language content and the use of target language skills in gaming

sessions are aligned with second language learning theories such as comprehensible

input (Krashen, 1982; Krashen, 1985), interaction and negotiation of meaning (Long,

1981; Long, 1985), and comprehensible output (Swain, 1993), which were discussed

in the light of computer games and language learning in the studies of García-

Carbonell et al. (2001), Thorne et al. (2009), and Zhao and Lai (2009). The findings

are also in line with the affordances suggested by Reinhardt and Thorne (2020) based

on the concept of affordance by Gibson (1979). Examples to these are communicative

activities that are aimed at interacting with others to realize a common goal and having

a free and independent practicing of a target language.

The reading activities that were identified within the study mostly show

parallelism with previously observed activities of reading in computer games and

language learning literature. Studies on single-player games, such as those carried out

by Taylor (1990), Baltra (1990), Jordan (1992), Chen and Yang (2011, 2013), and Sarı

and Chen (2013) on games like Sim City, Bone and other games from different genres,

involved examples of reading practice through reading subtitles and reading game

content. On the other hand, studies on multiplayer games, such as those by Rankin et

al. (2009), Kongmee et al. (2012), Bytheway (2015), and Zou et al. (2021) on games

like World of Warcraft, EverQuest II, GodsWar Online, Hello Kitty Online, Perfect

World International, and Asda Story included a number of reading practice examples

via reading chat messages. As a result, it can be stated that the present findings mostly

corroborate the existing findings in the literature regarding reading. Most of these

studies also highlighted findings related to listening, as well. These involved listening

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to game subtitles and in-game content in single-player games and various ways

through which other players express themselves in multiplayer games. Some of the

findings in the literature such as listening activities such as listening to in-game texts

and NPCs are quite similar to the findings of the present study. But not all studies

outline the specific ways through which listening practice occurs in their games.

Therefore, the present study builds on the existing literature by outlining specific ways

of listening practice in computer games such as listening to notifications, information,

questions, responses, discussions, off-topic conversations, feelings, explanations,

suggestions, warnings, jokes and so on.

In terms of writing practice, there are overlapping points and differences

between the existing findings and the literature. The writing activities uncovered in the

present study involve giving information, responding, asking, and expressing feelings.

In some studies, like Shahrokni et al.’s (2020) investigation on language learning in

Stronghold Kingdoms, there were similar findings that involved writing outcomes via

chat messages just like the involvement of chat messages in the present study.

However, most findings in the literature on writing practice in computer games involve

game-related writing activities instead of game-based writing activities, such as

writing reports, reviews, or essays based on games (Baltra, 1990; Taylor, 1990;

Constantinescu, 2012). When it comes to speaking, the types of activities were more

diverse compared to writing. Some activities of speaking were at individual levels such

as those that occurred via were repeating character lines, reading aloud options of

responding, saying casual things to in-game characters, and those that involved

communicating with other players to giving information about in-game situations,

discussing strategies, expressing feelings about actions, explaining moves, suggesting

plans, warning against rival team movements, off-topic conversations, asking

questions, responding to other players and so on. Although not all studies clearly

explain how speaking practice takes place in games, common grounds can be

identified between the present findings and some studies in the literature such as those

by Chen and Yang (2011, 2013), Zheng (2016), and Reinders and Wattana (2015),

who underline meaningful communicative activities taking place in games. Especially,

the types of speaking activities that take place in multiplayer games in the present

study expand on the type of communicative outlined in such studies. When it comes

to single-player games, however, there is little parallelism with the existing literature

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with regard to repetition of in-game characters, reading response options to in-game

situations aloud, and talking to in-game characters casually.

5.4.5. Discussion of the Findings Related to the Opinions of Gamers on

Computer Games and Language Learning in View of Existing Literature

Starting with the first theme uncovered in the present study (opportunities

provided by computer games for language learning) and the categories identified

under it (exposure to authentic content, communication with other players, learning

target language knowledge, and improvement in target language skills), it can be stated

that there is total alignment with existing literature. A number of studies point out that

there are several advantages provided by computer games in terms of language

learning including exposure to content, in-game communication with other people,

improving target language knowledge, and practicing language skills. Many studies in

literature such as those by García-Carbonell et al. (2001), Peterson (2010), Yudintseva

(2015), Dincer (2020), and Reinhardt and Thorne (2020) underline the opportunity of

gamer learners to be exposed to authentic target language content in computer games.

Similarly, there are a number of studies in literature pointing to the authentic

communicative environment in computer games (Thorne et al., 2009; Zhao & Lai,

2009; Rankin et al., 2009; Newgarden & Zheng, 2016; Reinhardt & Thorne, 2020;

Shahrokni et al., 2020; Khanmurzina, 2020). Studies carried out by Palmberg (1988),

Miller and Hegelheimer (2006), Rankin et al. (2009), Turgut and İrgin (2009),

Cornillie et al. (2010), Bakar and Nosratirad (2013), Huang and Yang (2014),

Franciosi (2017), Chen et al. (2020), and Rahman and Angraeni (2020) point to target

language knowledge development in computer games. Finally, there are findings in

several studies including those by Rankin et al. (2009), De Wilde and Eyckmans

(2017), Shahrokni et al. (2020), and Yang and Chen (2020) that computer games offer

opportunities for learners to improve their language skills.

The second theme, limitations of computer games for language learning, and

its categories, game-related issues and player-related issues, bear some parallelism and

difference with the current literature. Game-related limitations of language learning in

computer games have been pointed out in various studies. Some examples include the

inclusion of genre-specific vocabulary items instead of common vocabulary items in

some games, the suitability of certain games for only advanced level learners, grammar

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supplementary materials being less effective than vocabulary supplementary materials,

pace of speaking in some games, and unfamiliarity with specific abbreviations

(Yudintseva, 2015; Miller & Hegelheimer, 2006; Chen & Yang 2011, 2013; Kongmee

et al., 2012). The findings of the present study align completely with some of these

existing findings such as the inclusion of genre-specific and uncommon words in some

games and exposure to excessive content. But the present study also expands the

existing literature with other limitations such as the use of archaic language, which

creates problems of understanding, and time restrictions while gaming, which

sometimes restrict gamers from delving deeper into the use and production of target

language. There are also player-related issues highlighted in the literature such as

concentration problems (Kongmee et al., 2012). The present study expands these

issues with limitations such as skipping cutscenes and dialogues, not paying enough

attention to the use of language, playing the game in native language instead of target

language, not playing with people from other countries, becoming addicted to games,

not playing with people from other countries.

The study mostly aligns with existing literature under the third theme, ways of

language learning and practicing in computer games, and it expands the existing

findings by adding various other ways of how target language is practiced in computer

games. Some ways through which target language is practiced include reading

messages, reading in-game texts, reading texts provided by non-playable characters,

listening to other players audio input, listening to in-game texts, listening to non-

playable characters for listening, writing messages, and speaking with other players in

the game (Taylor, 1990; Baltra, 1990; Rankin et al., 2009). The present study expands

such findings in the literature with a variety of activities including reading subtitles,

reading game content, reading messages; listening to monologues and dialogues of in-

game characters and game content, and listening to other players giving information,

asking, responding, discussing, expressing feelings, explaining, suggesting, warning,

joking; writing messages to give information, respond, ask questions, and express

feelings; and speaking via repetition, reading-aloud, talking to in-game characters, and

talking to other players to give information, discuss strategies, express feelings,

explain moves, suggest plans, warn others, converse on off-topic issues, ask questions,

and respond to others.

The other themes of the study (opinions about the previous findings of the

study, suggestions for gamer language learners, and expectations of gamer language

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learners from computer games) were mostly specific to the present study. Therefore,

many ideas under these themes cannot be directly compared with existing literature.

However, there can still be some points of comparison. Regarding the opinions of the

participants about the study, agreement was much more common compared with

disagreements. Considering that the present findings are mostly in alignment with

existing literature, it can be stated that this theme also mostly corroborates existing

literature. When it comes to the suggestions of the participants for language learners

in terms of the improvement of language learning in gaming sessions, the categories

under the theme, (adopting a mindset of learning and having fun, optimizing gaming

habits for language learning and using external sources) are not in contrast with the

existing literature. Finally, the expectations of the participants related to the content

of the games and features of the games are also parallel with existing literature in that

computer games provide exposure to authentic content and enable meaningful

communication through various features and the expectations of the participants

mostly revolve around the improvement of such content and features.

5.5. Implications for Research

5.5.1. Implications for Research Based on Game Mode Comparison

The findings of the present study indicate that there is no significant difference

between single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of the frequency of

learning grammar, learning vocabulary, practicing reading, and practicing listening,

but there is significant difference between the two game modes in terms of practicing

writing and practicing speaking. From an academic point of view, neither the literature

nor the present findings indicate a significant difference between single-player and

multiplayer game modes in terms of the frequency of vocabulary learning and

grammar learning, but the qualitative findings of the present study demonstrate that

learning vocabulary and grammar is associated more with the learning of new items

and structures in single-player games, and it is connected, equally if not more, to the

practicing of already-learned items and structures in multiplayer games. That’s why,

the differences between the two game modes in terms of learning vocabulary items

and learning grammar structures are worth considering at deeper levels and/or through

other means of data collection in further research studies.

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In terms of reading, the study found indications of reading being practiced more

frequently and lengthily in single-player games than multiplayer ones, but the evidence

was not enough to answer the question positively. In role-playing genre, both as part

of the questionnaire and the observation, there was a considerable difference between

the two game modes in favor of single-player game mode. In the other genres, there

were no significant differences on the questionnaire, but there were serious differences

between the two game modes, again favoring the single-player game mode. Therefore,

in order to investigate these indications more profoundly, it is worth evaluating the

differences between the two game modes in terms of practicing reading further. When

it comes to listening, role-playing genre also demonstrated a significant difference of

more frequent practice in single-player game mode compared to multiplayer, but the

findings of the observation did not support this outcome. Still, the difference between

single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of the frequency and length of

listening practice is worth investigating further, specifically in role-playing genre.

When it comes to writing and speaking, there is a stark difference between the

two game modes, favoring the multiplayer game mode. This can be expected

considering the nature of multiplayer games which often require players to

communicate with others through written and spoken means of communication. Still,

the nature of this difference can be further investigated in research studies with

different methodologies, such as experimental studies, so that the difference can be

confirmed further and in different contexts. One interesting outcome of the study based

on productive skills is that the frequency of writing and speaking practice does not

equal to never in single-player games according to participant responses in the

questionnaire. The median response of the participants in terms of writing and

speaking practice frequency in single-player games is rarely. When the findings of the

interviews are taken into consideration, there are participant responses corroborating

this outcome such as practicing speaking via the repetition of character lines. This

point can also be worth considering and researching further as it indicates that single-

player gamers are not bereft of productive skills altogether in their gaming sessions,

but merely practice them at a less frequent level compared to multiplayer gamers.

Further research studies can be conducted specifically on how learners practice

productive skills in single-player games on their own.

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Another important direction for further research is the potential impact of the

background of the participants on their experiences of language learning in computer

games. Participants with different native la0nguages, educational backgrounds,

English proficiency levels, ages, and gaming experience might have different

experiences of language learning and practicing outcome in their gaming sessions.

Future research studies on computer games and language learning might delve into

whether background of gamer language learners have a considerable impact on the

experiences of the participants regarding language learning. In addition to these, the

purpose of language learning might be worth considering in further research studies.

The priority levels of gamer language learners over having fun, winning games, or

simply learning languages might also influence how and to what extent target language

learning takes place in computer games. These considerations are not only for game

mode comparison, but also for other focus points involved in the present study, as well.

5.5.2. Implications for Research Based on Genre Comparison

As can be inferred from the comparison of the existing findings in the literature

and the present findings, there is so much room for further research in the learning and

practicing of target language knowledge and skills in different game modes and genres.

Vocabulary learning is by far the area in which most of the research efforts has been

dedicated in computer games and language learning ever since scientific scrutiny on

computer games and language learning started. In most of the studies in literature,

vocabulary has been the core focus of papers. And in these papers, there seems to have

been a specific interest in vocabulary learning in adventure games and simulation

games although studies on vocabulary learning in all the main genres covered in the

present study are present in the literature. Adventure games demonstrated the highest

frequency of vocabulary learning based on the responses of the participants and the

median frequency response was often in this study. Therefore, the focus in the

literature and this finding is parallel. On the other hand, simulation games displayed

less vocabulary learning frequency compared to other genres and the median

frequency response in this genre was sometimes. Therefore, there is a difference

between the present findings and the literature in this regard. These two genres

received a good deal of attention, but still there are thousands more adventure and

simulation games in the market which might be investigated in terms of vocabulary

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learning. Although there are main genres of games, games from the same genre can

differ considerably. Thus, involving different games or even several games from the

same genre or different genres in further research on vocabulary learning in computer

games can provide deeper insights into the issue. Other genres with less attention in

the literature such as action games and strategy games should be investigated more

with regard to vocabulary learning, because these genres indicate almost as frequent

vocabulary learning as the adventure genre.

Further research studies can also cover learning grammar, which has received

far less attention than vocabulary learning. According to the findings of the present

study, grammar learning does not have as much frequency as vocabulary learning,

which also seems to be the case in the literature based on the number of studies

reporting findings about vocabulary learning and grammar learning. However, both

the present study and other studies in literature report that there is grammar learning

in computer games with different genres, although it may not be at the same level as

vocabulary learning. The nature of this learning process can be investigated in further

research studies which may include various games from different genres. In addition,

an interesting point of inquiry could be to delve deeper into the reasons why grammar

learning is regarded as less effective in computer games by gamers compared to

vocabulary learning and how this outcome can be remedied via potential interferences

to gaming sessions.

Regarding reading, there are several findings indicating positive outcomes in

role-playing games, which is the genre most focused on in terms of reading

development. Adventure and simulation also received considerable attention from the

researchers regarding reading development. However, action and adventure genres

demonstrated more reading practice compared to simulation games in the present

study. Therefore, there needs to be more focus on these genres in terms of reading

development. Similar studies as the ones conducted on role-playing, adventure, and

simulation games can be carried out by taking action games and strategy games as

their focus. Additional studies can also be implemented via different research

methodologies, or by focusing on a number of games from different genres, which

might enable researchers to make comparisons, in addition to finding out individual

outcomes related to the genres. In terms of listening, the interesting outcome was that

the action genre, which is the genre with the most notable listening practice outcome,

did not receive as much attention as the genres of adventure, role-playing, and

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simulation genres in the literature. There should be more studies on action games in

terms of its effects on listening practice and improvement. Studies similar to the ones

carried out on the other genres can be conducted by taking action games as their focus,

as well. Strategy genre, despite not being as effective as the action genre based on the

findings of the present study, shows promising outcomes in terms of listening

development, and it should be investigated further in terms of listening practice.

Writing is one of the areas on which findings are less prevalent compared to

other target language skills. In addition, several reports of writing practice and

improvement in computer games cover the use of computer games through follow-up

writing activities, instead of writing practice that takes place during the gaming session

itself. Therefore, there is a crucial need for further studies on writing activities that

take place in computer games. What is even more important is to understand why there

is less practice of writing skill in computer games compared to other language skills.

Further research studies can delve into why writing is the least practiced language skill

and how this skill can be integrated into the gaming sessions of language learners.

There are some reports on writing practice in or related to adventure games, strategy

games, and simulation games. However, no specific focus on writing was observed in

the literature on action games and role-playing games within the scope of the literature

review. Therefore, studies investigating these two genres in terms of writing practice

can also be conducted. Alternatively, studies that cover multiple genres can be carried

out to be able to compare the genres with regard to writing practice. When it comes to

speaking, there is an urgent need to explore speaking practice in action games in

further and deeper research studies. The present study found out that action genre is

the genre where speaking is practiced the most. However, no studies put a specific

emphasis on speaking practice in action games. Genres with less speaking practice,

such as role-playing and simulation, have been subject to a number of research studies

in terms of speaking development in computer games. Considering the positive

outcomes in these research studies, even better outcomes might be achieved in terms

of speaking development in action games in further research studies.

One more area for potential research could be virtual reality games. Although

these games are not regarded as a separate genre and they are under different main

genres of computer games, they provide a unique experience with potentially increased

levels of reality and involvement, these games might also be worth investigating with

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regard to their language learning outcome. Whether an increased feeling of reality

would contribute to exposure to target language or the use of language it or limit it

could be a topic for investigation.

5.5.3. Implications for Research Based on Target Language Knowledge

and Skills Comparison

Further studies comparing the genres within themselves with regard to which

target language knowledge and skill types are learned or practiced more compared to

others can be conducted to delve deeper into computer games and language learning.

Although most genres had similar outcomes in this regard, there can be notable

differences as in the case of the action genre. This issue can be investigated further via

experimental studies to understand which knowledge and skill types are improved

more as a result of gaming sessions, or a number of gaming sessions from specific

genres can be observed for extended durations to find out more about the opportunities

and areas of development within each genre. In addition, questionnaires that are

specifically designed to investigate a certain genre can be implemented to find out

about the opinions of learners in terms of language learning in that genre at a more

profound level.

Subgenres can also influence which areas of language are practiced and

improved more compared to others in computer games, and that is why they can also

be subject to scientific inquiry in further research studies. For example, some strategy

games are turn-based, while some others real-time. These differences may affect the

amount of time players can be exposed to language content or the amount of time

players can use to create language output while playing these games. Another example

can be related to simulation games. Whereas life simulation games can expose learners

to daily language content, in vehicle simulation games, learners are often exposed to

specific use of language. It can be stated that just like main genres can have a

significant influence on language learning in computer games, subgenres might have

a considerable influence in language learning within genres. In further research studies

with similar or different designs, the effects of subgenres can be investigated, as well.

Areas that are encountered and practiced more and areas that are encountered

and practiced less can also be a point of inquiry in further studies. For example,

listening improvement in action games can be focused solely and at a deeper level in

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further research studies investigating the issue considering the higher levels of practice

found in the present study just like writing, which demonstrated lower levels of

practice in most genres, specifically in the action genre, can be primed in further

studies to find out why it gets less practice compared to other skills within this genre

and how to make its practice more effective in further studies. Similar to this, higher

levels of reading practice in adventure and role-playing games can be the central

subject of further research studies, which might delve deeper into the subskills of the

reading skill and investigate which areas of reading are practiced and improved the

most in such games. These examples can be generalized to other knowledge and skill

types, as well.

5.5.4. Implications for Research Based on Activities of Target Language

Learning and Practicing

Regarding academic implications, it can be stated that there is some

considerable parallelism between the findings of the present study and the literature,

but there are so many differences, as well. However, these differences are not mostly

in the form of contrasts, but in the form of expanding on existing findings with the

addition of other activities of language learning and practicing in computer games. The

main reason for this outcome might be put as the inclusion of different game modes

and game genres in the present study, including those that are usually underresearched,

as opposed to most other studies in the literature, which focus on a single game mode

and single genre typically through a single game. The similarities among research

studies through so many decades corroborate the existing research studies and show

that computer games and language learning have a solid background of literature. The

differences among the research studies, including this one, are definitely not

negligible, and indicate that there is still a need for investigations in lots of different

areas in computer games and language learning for deeper levels of understanding.

One of the most important outcomes of the observations in the present study is

the difference between single-player and multiplayer game modes in terms of the ways

through which language is practiced. Whereas practicing of language skills in single-

player games is typically higher in duration and shorter in frequency, the practicing of

language skills is usually shorter in duration and higher in frequency in multiplayer

games. A lower number of practice frequency in single-player games and higher

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numbers of practice frequency in multiplayer games inevitably creates a difference

between the two game modes in terms of the variability of practicing activities. In

single-player games, the types of practice are less varied but longer in duration. In

contrast, in multiplayer games the types are practice are more varied but shorter in

duration. Another notable finding is that receptive skills are practiced for longer

durations in single-player games while productive skills are practiced more in

multiplayer games. These findings hold key information in understanding the findings

of existing research on computer games and language learning. For example, studies

focusing on single-player games are more oriented towards vocabulary learning and

the practicing of receptive skills compared to studies on multiplayer games. The

productive activities involved in them are usually game-related instead of being game-

based. On the other hand, multiplayer games are more oriented towards written and

oral communication in addition to investigations of vocabulary learning. Examining

the differences between the two game modes is worthwhile as this can uncover further

variations between these in terms of language learning outcomes and types of language

practicing involved.

One other noteworthy outcome of the observation was the considerably lower

levels of language skills practice in simulation genre compared to others. In terms of

reading, listening, and speaking, the simulation genre had lower practice frequency

and shorter practice duration compared to other genres. It was only similar to other

genres in writing, but only because writing was the skill that was almost never

practiced across all the genres involved. The outcome is striking especially considering

the attention simulation genre has received from researchers over the years and the

promising language learning outcomes that have been uncovered with the use of

simulation games. It can be thought based on the findings of the present study that

even better outcomes of language learning and practicing can be potentially uncovered

in some other genres, such as action, role-playing, and strategy, which have received

less research attention in the field. Therefore, two notable areas of further research can

be identified here. The first one is why simulation genre demonstrate language skill

practice for shorter durations and lower frequency compared to other genres in reading,

listening, and speaking. The second one is investigating the language skills practice in

relatively underresearched genres like action, role-playing, and strategy to find deeper

information about opportunities for language learning and types of language practicing

involved in these games.

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5.5.5. Implications for Research Based on the Opinions of Gamers on

Computer Games and Language Learning

From an academic point of view, it can be stated that most of the interview

findings in the study are in alignment with existing literature, with a number of

expansions on previously uncovered aspects of computer games and language learning

and certain aspects that have been in the present study. First of all, considering the

points that are in alignment in the present study and in the existing literature, it can be

suggested that many areas of improvement have been corroborated in the literature on

computer games and language learning throughout the years, including the present

study. The fact that various studies from distinct backgrounds have pointed out similar

opportunities and limitations of computer games and language learning in the past 40

years solidifies the importance of game-based language learning and encourages

further research studies to find out more about language learning in computer games.

However, there have also been critical differences across the studies that have been

conducted on this issue, and these are also worth considering and investigating further

just like the areas of consensus.

When the literature is taken into consideration, it can be said that there are more

findings related to the opportunities provided by computer games for language

learning than the limitations involved in the process. Whereas computer games offer

valuable advantages for gamers to be exposed to authentic content and be involved in

meaningful communication activities, these advantages can be degraded severely due

to the limitations of games in certain areas of language learning or personal habits of

gamers, as found out in the present study. On the contrary, choosing the right mode

and genre for personal target language needs and developing beneficial habits of

language learning in gaming sessions can considerably enhance the language learning

outcome in gaming sessions. Further research studies can delve deeper into the

limitations of computer games regarding the limitations of games for language

learning, habits of gamers that inhibit the efficiency of language learning and identify

other potential issues that restrict language learning outcome during gaming. In

addition, further research studies can also investigate how to minimize these potential

limitations and maximize the language learning outcome based on the suggestions of

gamer learners of English, as well.

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Another area of investigation can be how target language is learned and

practiced in computer games. There has been a number of findings on how learners

learn target language knowledge and practice target language skills in computer

games. The present study has also identified similar and different ways of language

learning and practicing in computer games. Yet since each study has a different scope,

distinct ways of language learning and practicing are identified with each new study,

and this has been the case for years. Therefore, future research studies can be carried

out to find out how learners learn target language knowledge and practice target

language skills in different games. It has been identified in the present study that some

genres such as adventure and simulation has received more attention than some others

like action and strategy. Thus, future studies can focus on genres that have been

underresearched compared to others to reveal how language learning and practicing

takes place in these games at a deeper level via tools such as observations, interviews,

and diaries.

Suggestions of experienced gamer learners of English are of great importance

in improving the outcome of computer games and language learning. When the

literature is taken into account, it can be seen that there is more information about the

experiences of the participants in games and their opinions about the effectiveness of

the process compared to their suggestions on how to make gaming sessions more

efficient for language learning. Experienced gamer learners can provide insights into

the advantages and disadvantages of learning English in computer games from

different perspectives with their recommendations for less experienced gamers and

language learners. The present study provided several suggestions of gamer learners

of English mainly related to using games for both fun and learning, improving gaming

habits for maximized language learning outcome, and utilizing external tools that can

facilitate language learning during gaming sessions. The recommendations of gamers

can be further investigated in future research studies with additional data collection

tools such as focus groups and open-ended questionnaires along with interviews.

Collecting qualitative data from more gamer learners of English might create a set of

recommendations that has more detail and variety.

A final area of further research is related to the expectations of learners from

computer games. This issue is quite underresearched as there is little information about

what typical gamer learners of English expect from computer games for efficient

language learning outcome along with having fun. The present study provided insights

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into this issue by specifying certain expectations of learners from games related to

existing or potential features and content of games that can enhance the language

learning experience of gamers in gaming sessions. These expectations can be evaluated

further in future research studies by integrating more participants and additional data

collection tools.

Computer games and language learning, and more specifically, language

learning in different computer game modes and genres can be integrated into computer

assisted language learning specialist preparation programs, such as the one suggested

by Savaş (2018), to help learners benefit from computer games with regard to language

learning more effectively. Further research studies can be conducted to investigate

potential ways through which the data from computer games and language learning in

the literature, and the data from the present study regarding learning English in

different computer games and genres can be integrated into computer assisted

language learning specialist preparation.

5.6. Implications for Practice

5.6.1. Implications on Game Mode Comparison for Practice

From a practical point of view, the results also provide valuable insights into

how computer games can be best utilized for the learning of target language knowledge

and practicing of language skills. According to the findings of the present study, not

only the players of single-player games but also the players of multiplayer games

report vocabulary learning and grammar learning outcomes. But they differ in terms

of the focus of this learning process. Whereas single-player gamers focus more on the

acquisition of target language vocabulary items and grammar structures, multiplayer

gamers focus more on the production of target language vocabulary items and

structures. Therefore, gamer learners of English that have a good knowledge of target

language vocabulary and grammar but struggle at the production of these can be

guided to play multiplayer games where they can find opportunities for using the

previously-learned items and structures, whereas those that are in need of acquiring

new words and grammar structures can be advised to play single-player games with

rich content. Studies show us that most of the students from all over the world are

already gamers and they can be expected to know the basic differences between these

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game modes. By being instructed on academic findings related to the differences

between these two game modes and how to make the best use of single-player and

multiplayer games depending on their needs, they can individually achieve a

considerable language learning outcome from games. In addition, parents, teachers,

and other educational stakeholders who have at least basic information about the

differences between these two game modes can provide additional guidance to

students, which can increase language learning outcome in an activity on which

countless hours are already spent with enjoyment.

Similar implications can also be drawn for reading and listening, and writing

and speaking. The findings provide implications which point to higher probability of

practicing reading and listening in single-player games and higher probability of

practicing writing and speaking in multiplayer games. Students who are better at

receptive skills can be guided to play multiplayer games where they would have a

higher chance of practicing their writing and speaking skills by communicating with

other players, and students who are need of practicing their reading and listening in

meaningful and enriched contexts can be directed towards single-player games where

there is exposure to written and spoken content so that they can improve their receptive

skills. A number of gamer learners of English seem to be aware of these benefits but

there are many more who could be informed and instructed further to get better benefits

from their gaming sessions. There can also be implications of the findings for gaming

companies. The findings indicate that there is more probability for the practicing of

receptive skills in single-player games and more probability for the practicing of

productive skills in multiplayer games. This inevitably has an impact on the

engagement of gamers with the games, as well. Gaming companies can produce more

output-oriented content for single-player games, and more input-oriented content for

multiplayer games in an effort to increase the engagement of the players with their

games via increasing the exposure to language and production of language.

5.6.2. Implications on Genre Comparison for Practice

Practically, the findings of the study can provide valuable implications for

language learning in computer games. The first notable outcome under the comparison

of the genres was the significant differences in vocabulary learning, grammar learning,

and reading practice due mainly to relatively lower frequency of learning and

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practicing in the simulation genre, and the higher frequency in the other genres

compared to that. Therefore, based on the findings of the present study, gamer learners

of English can be expected to learn fewer vocabulary items and grammar structures,

and practice reading in shorter durations in simulation games compared to other

genres. From this perspective, learners of English who play simulation games can be

informed about this relative disadvantage, and they can be guided to implement further

activities in their gameplays which might increase the learning of vocabulary learning,

grammar learning, and reading practice. One suggestion might be to focus on learning

casual vocabulary items which can be expected to be encountered more in daily life

compared to technical terms which are often prevalent as the target vocabulary items

encountered in simulation games. Another one can be to either try simulation games

with more complicated language content which may increase the learning of grammar

structures and in-game reading activities. The learners, if they have any interest, can

also be guided to try out games with other genres, in which opportunities for learning

vocabulary items, learning grammar structures, and practicing reading are higher.

Role-play games, which demonstrated the highest reading practice outcome in both

the results of the questionnaire and the interview might be a good suggestion for such

learners.

Another important outcome in the comparison of the genres was the higher

levels of practice frequency and duration in action games in terms of listening and

speaking. Based on this finding, gamer learners of English who are in need of

improvement in their listening and speaking skills can be suggested to try action

games, where opportunities for practicing these skills are plentiful. For listening, both

single-player action games and multiplayer action games are fruitful in terms of

opportunities for practice. The main difference is the higher duration and lower

frequency of input in single-player action games and lower-duration and higher

frequency of input in multiplayer action games. Therefore, students can be guided

accordingly based on which of these they need to practice more. When it comes to

speaking, multiplayer games are more appropriate in terms of maximizing the spoken

output. The fast-paced and cooperation-oriented nature of these games can provide

valuable opportunities for learners to practice their speaking skills.

The final notable outcome in the comparison of the genres was the significant

difference in writing in the questionnaire due mainly to relatively higher levels of

practice in strategy games and relatively lower levels of practice in simulation games.

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However, it should be noted that this outcome was not backed in the observation.

Whichever outcome is taken as the basis, the practicing of writing has the lowest

frequency and duration in computer games compared to other skills. Therefore,

whatever genre they might be spending their gaming hours on, gamer learners of

English must be aware that they have quite few chances to practice their writing skill

in their regular gaming sessions. One solution might be to put a conscious effort to

practice writing with others via chat messages in games where this is a possibility.

Another can be to integrate gaming sessions with post-game writing activities such as

reports or papers as was the case in many studies in literature. However, the fact that

writing is often practicable in multiplayer games and multiplayer games are often

competitive in nature might decrease the chances of success in this regard. Therefore,

there can be some implications for gaming companies here. By integrating more

effective writing-based communication systems in their games, companies can enable

players to use chat systems more and therefore practice their writing skills more

frequently with higher durations.

In addition to player-oriented implications, there can be implications for

gaming companies, as well. One of the most important outcomes of the present point

of inquiry was lower levels of learning and practicing of almost any type of target

language knowledge and skills in simulation games. Present findings indicate that

there are lower levels of learning vocabulary and grammar, and lower levels of

practicing reading, listening, writing, and speaking in simulation games. Simulation

game companies can take this outcome into account and come up with games with

more effective vocabulary and grammar input, and more opportunities for the

practicing of target language skills. This would not only give players higher chances

of target language development, but also it would enhance the gaming experience by

developing more language-connection with it. More meaningful content would

inevitably lead to better engagement with the game, which in turn would increase the

effectiveness of the game both in terms of enjoyment and benefits. Other outcomes

highlight certain strong sides of games. For example, adventure and role-playing

genres demonstrate higher levels of reading frequency and action genre shows higher

levels of listening and speaking frequency. Gaming companies producing games with

these specific genres can dwell on these advantages, focus on these and increase the

effectiveness even more, and therefore they can come up with games that are

increasingly effective in providing gamers with better exposure to and production of

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target language, which could eventually enhance the experience of gamers both in

terms of having fun and learning outcome.

Formative assessment in language classes and self-assessment of the students

regarding their language learning progress might be key factors for the level of

effectiveness in computer games and language learning. In classes where there is a

predominant interest in computer games, the formative assessment of students can be

integrated with feedback on the use of computer games for language learning to

include guidance on playing games that can contribute to what specific students might

be lacking in certain areas of the language. Similarly, students can be supported with

regard to self-assessment and direct their preference of computer games in accordance

with genres in which they can increase their chances of learning and practicing the

target language knowledge and skill types that they need more compared to others.

These points are not only valid for genre comparison, but also for other focus areas of

the present study.

5.6.3. Implications on Target Language Knowledge and Skills

Comparison for Practice

From a practical perspective, the comparison of the learning and practicing of

target language knowledge and skills within each genre can provide valuable

suggestions for improvement of language learning in computer games. Based on the

findings, it can be stated that a typical gamer playing a game from any genre can be

expected to learn more vocabulary items than grammar structures, and do more reading

and listening than writing and speaking in their typical gaming sessions. Gamer

learners of English can be informed about these findings to adjust their expectations

from computer games with regard to language learning and what benefits they

typically receive more compared to others in their gaming sessions. The findings of

the study informs us that vocabulary learning is more frequent in games than grammar

learning in typical gaming sessions. Therefore, learners need to put some conscious

effort into their gaming sessions if they would like to learn grammar structures as

frequently as learning vocabulary items. One reason might be that players may not

need to understand grammar structures completely to comprehend game content or

player input in games and they may ignore learning of structures as long as they can

somewhat understand the messages provided for them. A suggestion here to gamers

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might be to try to dwell on and understand unknown grammar structures completely

by putting a conscious effort into it without affecting the flow of the gaming session.

The findings indicate that reading and listening are practiced frequently in

typical gaming sessions regardless of the game mode or genre. Therefore, learners can

expect to have considerable practice of their reading and listening skills by playing a

variety of computer games from different genres. One important point here is the focus

on the listening skill in the action genre. In contrast with the other genres, the practice

of listening in action genre had the highest level of frequency and length in action

genre and this level was at a significantly higher level compared to other target

language knowledge and skill types. Therefore, gamer learners of English who are

need of further practice and improvement in listening can be guided to play action

games with rich in-game and player-generated audio content to have higher chances

of increasing their listening performance.

The productive skills, on the other hand, are practiced significantly less than

the receptive skills. To start with, writing is the skill with least amount of practice as

noted in earlier comparisons. Gamer learners cannot expect to improve their writing

performance as much as other skills in their typical gaming sessions in any genre.

Additional emphasis and effort to this skill is a must if players want to improve their

writing skills while gaming. Although there are more opportunities for speaking

practice in games from different genres compared to writing, speaking is also practiced

at a lower level compared to the receptive skills. The main determining factor here is

of course the game mode. However, game mode is not a factor that can prevent the

practicing of writing or speaking skills completely, as the qualitative findings

demonstrate. Learners can find many different ways to practice their writing and

speaking skills in single-player games just like in multiplayer games. Therefore,

providing suggestions to learners so that writing and speaking practice, especially in

single-player games can be the key to increasing overall writing and speaking practice

in computer games with different genres.

The repetitive outcome of higher levels of vocabulary learning, and reading

and listening practice, and lower levels of grammar learning, and writing and speaking

practice in various genres should also be noted by gaming companies. The exposure

to target language vocabulary, reading, and listening have been found to be beneficial

not only in the present study but also in various studies that have been conducted so

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far. The experience of benefiting from an activity that is regarded as fun would only

increase the likelihood of doing that activity further in the future. Therefore, higher

levels of exposure to vocabulary, reading, and listening probably increases the

likelihood of gamers to keep playing these games with the aim of learning and having

fun. Although chances seem lower compared to the other knowledge and skill types,

exposure to target language grammar and opportunities for practicing writing and

speaking could also increase the probability of learning and having fun in computer

games. If there were more chances of learning and practicing these target language

knowledge and skill types, it can be said that playing hours and learning amount can

also increase further. As a result, gaming companies can come up with games that

draw more attention to target language grammar structures and provide more

meaningful opportunities for communication via writing and speaking to have access

to more players that are likely to play the game for longer periods of time with

enjoyment and sense of learning.

5.6.4. Implications on Activities of Language Learning and Practicing for

Practice

The findings of the observation can provide valuable practical implications, as

well. To start with, there is a clear difference between frequency count and the length

of reading practice between single-player games and multiplayer games in the

observation, in favor of single-player games in all genres excluding simulation games.

In simulation games, the outcome is also in favor of single-player games, but the

outcome is not as considerable as in the other genres. Based on the findings, gamer

EFL learners can be expected to be involved in activities of reading that are more

frequent and that are longer in duration in single-player games compared to

multiplayer games. As a result, students in need of reading practice can be guided to

play single-player games to be able to read not only lengthy in-game content in

sophisticated storylines, but also dialogues with several exchanges between characters.

On the other hand, gamer learners of English that focus their gaming sessions on

multiplayer games can be made aware that it is not as likely for them to be involved in

lengthy and frequent target language reading through reading in-game content and

dialogues as single-player gamers. This may help eliminate unrealistic expectations

from computer games in terms of target language reading benefits. Similar

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implications can also be drawn for simulation genre. Based on the findings of the

present study, a typical simulation gaming session does not include considerable levels

of reading practice, regardless of game-mode differences. Therefore, learners who play

these games should also be aware that it is not as likely for them to be exposed to target

language reading texts through in-game content and dialogues as the players of other

genres.

Compared to other skills, listening is the most frequently and lengthily

practiced language skill based on the outcome of the observations regardless of game

mode and game genre. Gamer EFL learners can be expected to practice listening via

listening to monologues and dialogues of characters, and in-game content where

players are introduced to the storyline in single-player games, and by listening to other

players in voice communication providing information, responding to questions,

discussing plans and strategies, expressing feelings, explaining various situations,

suggesting moves, warning against enemy actions, joking about in-game and casual

topics and other actions. A gaming English learner can be expected to practice listening

via various acts of listening in various game modes and genres. The only game type in

which considerable levels of listening practice was not observed was the single-player

simulation game. Aside from this game mode and genre, diverse and lengthy listening

practice was observed in all the other game mode and genre combinations. Therefore,

learners interested in gaming and in need of listening practice and improvement can

be guided to play almost any game in the market to be exposed to target language

listening.

Writing, on the other hand, was the least frequently and lengthily practiced

language skill based on the observation. Rare instances of writing involved practicing

by giving information, responding, asking, and expressing feelings through chat

messages. The observation findings, along with the findings of the questionnaire,

demonstrated that a gaming English learner cannot expect to practice writing at

considerable levels in a typical gaming session. Therefore, gamer learners of English

should be aware that they cannot expect to improve their writing considerably via

average gaming activities. Gamer learners of English who are in need of writing

practice may be guided to play games where communication is required but available

only by writing messages instead of a voice-chat system. This would inevitably

increase the amount of writing practice even though it is not possible to find out

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whether it would be at considerable levels without conducting further research studies.

One other alternative might be to be involved in game-related writing activities

following gaming sessions in addition to game-based writing. For example, there are

various discussion hubs based on computer games where players have the opportunity

to discuss game-related issues. Gamers can be a part of these discussion hubs to ask

questions, share experiences, and respond to other players posts by writing.

When it comes to speaking, there were more expected and less expected

findings. Expectedly, multiplayer games showed more frequent speaking practice

compared to single-player games since players often need to communicative with one

another by discussing strategies, explaining situations, suggesting moves, warning

against potential moves, asking questions, responding to questions and so on. In

addition to these, they also have casual conversations by joking, expressing feelings,

and talking about non-game-related issues etc. Therefore, a gamer English learner

playing multiplayer games can be expected to practice speaking in a typical gaming

session. The only genre in which speaking practice was not observed at a considerable

level was simulation genre. Apart from this genre, all the other multiplayer games from

different genres involved frequent and lengthy speaking practice. A more unexpected

finding was that speaking was not simply non-existent in single-player games. In some

single-player games, such as in adventure and role-playing games, several instances

speaking practice was observed. These involved players repeating voice lines, reading

options of responding to characters aloud, and talking to in-game characters. Thus, it

can be stated that single-player gamers can also be expected to practice speaking in

their gaming sessions. Such activities can be extended and improved to make single-

player games more enhanced in terms of speaking practice. Single-player gamer

English learners can be suggested to repeat voice lines and talk to in-game characters

as they would in real life as much as possible to make gaming sessions more beneficial

in terms of speaking practice.

5.6.5. Implications on the Opinions of Gamers on Computer Games and

Language Learning for Practice

The first theme of the study encompasses the advantages provided by computer

games. Participant responses demonstrate several advantages provided by computer

games for language learning including exposure to authentic content, opportunities for

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meaningful communication, learning of grammar and vocabulary, and practicing of

reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills. Since these outcomes were mostly in

alignment with the other data sources of the study and the existing literature, it can be

stated that such opportunities can be available for any gamer learning languages.

However, findings of the study also indicate that the availability of these advantages

can be affected considerably by the genre and mode of games that are played.

Therefore, it could be an advantage for gamers to be aware of the differences across

game modes and genres for the advantages they provide for language learning. For

example, a gamer playing single-player games can be expected to be exposed to more

authentic content compared to multiplayer games. On the other hand, it is more likely

for a gamer playing multiplayer games to be involved in meaningful communication

activities compared to a gamer playing single-player games. The findings also indicate

that genres are influential on which skills are practiced more in gaming sessions. For

example, the findings indicate that reading is practiced more in role-playing games,

and listening and speaking is practiced more in action games. Being aware of these

differences across game modes and genres can enhance the effectiveness of language

learning in computer games for gamer learners of English.

Just like being aware of the opportunities for language learning and practicing,

understanding the challenges of language learning in computer games can also lead to

considerable practical benefits for language learners. The findings of the study indicate

that game-related issues such as excessive content, exposure to uncommon words, and

lack of opportunities to use certain skills while gaming, and player-related issues like

ignoring the content of the game, skipping dialogues and cutscenes, not playing the

game in the target language, and not communicating with other players can restrict the

effectiveness of language learning in computer games. Gamer learners of English

should be aware that such game-related and player-related problems can have an

important impact on the outcome of language learning in gaming sessions and avoiding

such problems can increase the language learning benefits of computer games

substantially.

Another area for practical implications for gamer learners is related to the

recommendations of gamer learners of English for optimum language learning in

computer games. The recommendations were categorized under three main points.

These are adopting a mindset of learning and having fun, optimizing gaming habits

for language learning and using external sources. Gamer learners can increase the

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effectiveness of their language learning experience in their gaming sessions by

following these recommendations provided by the participants of the present study,

who have experience in various game modes and genres. Adopting a mindset of

learning and having fun is one of the most important ideas uncovered in the study.

Gaming is regarded as a useful language learning tool by the participants, not just

because it provides various opportunities for the learning and practicing of target

language knowledge skills, but also because it is a fun activity on which several hours

are spent every week. In addition, optimizing gaming habits by adopting or

maintaining habits such as playing the game in the target language to increase the

exposure to target language content and playing on international servers instead of

regional ones to maximize the opportunities for language use, and using external

sources book and movie adaptations of games, streams as additional game-related

additional sources to enhance language learning outcome contributes to the language

learning process in computer games.

Expectations of gamer learners from computer games in terms of language

learning can provide valuable implications for game companies. The first expectations

of gamers were related to the features of the games. Some of these expectations were

related to features that are already present in many games but not present in some

others. These included being able to use different languages in the interface of the

game, being able to talk to other players via a microphone, the presence of subtitles

for speech input, having a simple design, and the inclusion of other additional elements

in games that are already present in many games. Some other expectations were related

to some potential features not in active use in the gaming market, such as having an

integrated pop-up dictionary and offering an interactive translation system. Gamers

also had content related expectations from games. These involved being rich in reading

texts, having rich listening activities, presenting an intriguing and sophisticated

storyline, being exposed to a number of words, incorporating riddles and puzzles,

being presented with choices to select from, and not inhibiting entertainment with too

much focus on learning. Gaming companies can consider these expectations of

learners since meeting these expectations could enable them to have access to more

non-native English-speaking gamers, which comprise the overwhelming majority of

gamers from all over the world with increased satisfaction from gaming both in terms

of entertainment and learning outcome.

259

5.7. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research

5.7.1. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to

Game Mode Comparison

The study is subject to certain limitations in terms of the comparison between

single-player and multiplayer game modes in the learning and practicing of target

language knowledge and skills. First of all, the comparisons were made mainly based

on the opinions of participants stated through the questionnaire, interpreted further via

the activities of language use by streamers in gaming sessions uncovered in the

observations and some participant opinions expressed in the interview. Although there

is mostly corroboration among the findings gathered these means of data collection,

there were also notable differences, and these differences require further investigation.

Additional means of data collection, such as an experimental design with a pre-test

and a post-test implementation can be employed to gather deeper insights into the

comparison of the two game modes.

Another limitation of the study is related to the participants involved in the

questionnaire. The participants of the present study were regular gamers with gaming

experience across both game modes and all game genres. The single-player and

multiplayer mode comparisons were made by grouping the participants based on their

preferred game mode. Although this uncovers the main differences between the

experiences of those who prefer the single-player game mode and those who prefer the

multiplayer game mode, the opinions of the participants may involve their experience

with the game mode they prefer less, in addition to the game mode they mainly prefer.

That is why further research studies can dwell upon the differences between single-

player and multiplayer game modes by comparing the experiences of gamers who only

play single-player games or who only play multiplayer games. An additional point

here is the number of participants within each genre in terms of the number of

participants who preferred single-player or multiplayer game mode. There were

differences in the game-mode preferences of the participants based on the genres. For

example, participants preferring single-player game mode in role-playing games could

prefer to play multiplayer games in strategy genre. Therefore, there were differences

between the number of participants preferring the single-player and multiplayer game

modes within each genre. This inevitably led to a mode-based comparison of

260

participants with different numbers within different genres. Further research studies

focusing on single-genres with the inclusion of equal number of participants playing

solely a specific game mode or preferring a specific game mode can be carried out to

have chance of achieving more meaningful statistical outcomes.

5.7.2. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to

Genre Comparison

The comparison of genres with regard to the learning and practicing of target

language knowledge and skills had some limitations. To start with, the comparisons

were mainly made via the questionnaire and the observation, along with certain

implications drawn from the interview. Similar to game-mode comparisons, the data

collection tools mostly had parallel findings with specific differences. The findings of

the interview were useful, especially in terms of understanding the differences between

the questionnaire and the interview. Further data collection tools, such as a pre-test

post-test designs in the form of proficiency tests that are applied prior to and following

gaming sessions to find out about language learning outcomes, participant diaries

where participants might report their own language learning and practicing

experiences, streams or game replays of players that enable researchers to have an

understanding of what kind of language learning and practicing activities take place in

gaming sessions might be employed to gain a more profound understanding of the

differences among genres in terms of target language learning and practicing.

Among the differences, probably the most important one was the lack of any

overt situation of vocabulary learning or grammar learning in observations. This

situation might be related to potentially higher levels of English proficiency of the

streamers playing and streaming games in English despite being from non-native

backgrounds. Another possibility might be that they cannot stop and look up any

possible unknown words or structures while streaming and instead they keep on with

their overall understanding of the target context and express what they would like to

with the vocabulary and grammar knowledge that they possess even though it may not

correspond to total understanding of a given text or speech, or an exact transfer of what

they would like to express via writing or speaking. Potential reasons for this outcome

are worth investigating in further research studies. One way to overcome such a

261

limitation might be to request records of gaming sessions by participants, but in such

a case, authenticity of target language learning and practicing might be a crucial issue.

5.7.3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to

Target Language Knowledge and Skills Comparison

Similar to other points of inquiry, genre-based comparison of target language

knowledge and skills was also subject to certain limitations. The main findings related

to these comparisons came from the outcome of the questionnaire along with specific

implications from the observation and the interview. The three means of data were

mostly in alignment with one another along with some differences. The findings in

each genre was also mostly in line with the other ones. Still, additional means of data

collection can be implemented to find out what types of target language knowledge is

learned and what types of target language skills are practiced more frequently and

lengthily in certain computer game genres. A substantial number of the findings are

based on participant opinions collected through the questionnaire and the interview.

Additional means of data collection that can provide information about genre-based

comparisons of target language learning and practicing can be implemented along with

the observation to achieve more meaningful outcomes. One example might be to

conduct short-term or long-term experimental designs with proficiency tests. Applying

pre-tests and asking participants to be involved in gaming sessions in different genres

and then implementing a post-test to find out whether there were significant

improvements in learning and practicing different target language knowledge and

skills might enable researchers to make further comparisons of which language

knowledge and skill types are learned and practiced more in gaming sessions. Another

example could be to calculate the potential for learning and practicing through the

content and the opportunities for communication provided by computer games to

players. Although this might not enable researchers to achieve a guaranteed outcome

of practicing language skills, it may help find out the opportunities for language

practice in an optimum gaming session. Achieving such an optimum gaming session

can be investigated further by collecting data from various stakeholders from computer

assisted language learning researchers to gamer learners of English.

262

5.7.4. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to

Activities of Target Language Learning and Practicing

Just like other points of inquiry in the study, the identification of how gamers

learn and practice target language knowledge and skills is also subject to some

limitations. The findings related to this investigation came mainly from the game

stream observations along with some implications from the questionnaire and the

interview. The observations involved the stream observation of the most commonly

played games according to the reports of the participants, involving one game from

each game mode and genre within the scope of the present study. Many games that are

played by a number of participants couldn’t be involved in the observation scope of

the study. The number of studies that are covered in the observation could be increased

in order to get more diverse and profound data on the ways of language learning and

practicing in computer games. One way to do that could be to simply include other

games that are played commonly by a number of participants. Another way to do it

could be to divide the genres into subgenres and include the most commonly played

games from each subgenre within the scope of the study. This could give a more varied

outcome related to each genre since subgenres might also have an impact on how target

language is learned and practiced in computer games just like game modes and genres

do.

One other limitation of the observations was the inclusion of game streams not

directed towards language learning. Whereas this enabled an authentic evaluation of

gaming sessions on what kind of language learning and practicing activities take place

in typical gaming sessions, it also led to the inability of observing certain language

learning outcomes. For example, no direct instance of vocabulary or grammar learning

was noted as part of the observations. This might have resulted from the inability of

the streamers to stop their gaming sessions to look up unknown vocabulary items or

grammar structures in the process of streaming or while playing multiplayer games.

Another possible reason could be potentially high proficiency levels of the streamers

since streaming a game with English interface in which you might also be expected to

communicate in English requires a certain level of English proficiency. The streamers

might have dealt with unknown vocabulary items and grammar structures by relying

on their existing knowledge in English in order not to hinder the flow of their streams.

Whatever the reasons are, game streams or game replays from participants with

263

different English proficiency backgrounds could be investigated in further research

studies to achieve a more diverse dataset on how non-native English speakers learn

and practice target language knowledge and skills in computer games with different

game modes and genres.

5.7.5. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Related to

Opinions of Gamers on Computer Games and Language Learning

Similar to other areas of investigation, the opinions of gamer learners of

English on computer games and language learning had some limitations, as well. To

start with, the scrutiny of the opinions of gamers covered the ideas of 10 participants,

focusing on single-player or multiplayer game mode and one of the main genres

involved in the study. This enabled the study to delve into the opinions of the

participants by not ignoring any of the game modes and genres involved. However,

genres themselves are divided into various subgenres and these subgenres have several

different characteristics just like similar ones. For example, strategy games have

subgenres such as real-time strategy games and turn-based strategy games. Whereas

real-time strategy games are often fast-paced and require players to act quickly, turn-

based strategy games usually enable players to take their time before deciding on

moves. Such a difference may also have an influence on language learning. To

illustrate, real-time strategy games may potentially help players to improve their

reading fluency while gathering information related to the units involved in the game

thanks to the time-constraint. On the other hand, turn-based strategy games may help

players to delve deeper into vocabulary items and grammar structures while reading

more detailed information typically involved in such games. Subgenres may have an

impact on computer games and language learning, just like genres do, and it might be

a good idea to involve them in further qualitative analysis to have access to a deeper

level of data with more perspectives. This integration can be carried out by including

a set of subgenres related to a major genre, and involving participants with frequent

experience in different subgenres to analyze a dataset with rich information related to

each subgenre. This can also help researchers to better interpret the outcome related to

main genres more effectively.

Another limitation of the study is the presence of participants from a dominant

nationality. The overwhelming majority of the participants involved in the interview

264

had Turkish background and Turkish-speaking origin. Opinions on language learning

in different environments and platforms may also change related to the characteristics

of a learner group, and it is a good idea to include participants from diverse cultural

backgrounds across the globe. In further research studies, participants from different

countries, native-language backgrounds, and cultural groups can be involved to have

access to a richer dataset with opinions from diverse groups of people on computer

games and language learning. To do this, online gaming platforms on the Internet can

be used more effectively for data collection.

One final limitation of the study is the scope of the interview. The interview

investigated the opinions of the participants on different aspects of computer games

and language learning by focusing on different game mode and genres with each

participant. However, it is always possible to improve the scope and effectiveness of

an interview, just like it is possible enhance the participants that are subject to the

interview. The present study focused and uncovered distinct aspects of computer

games and language learning in different game modes and genres, including

advantages and disadvantages for language learning, how target language knowledge

and skills are learned and practiced, agreement and disagreement with the findings,

recommendations for gamers, and expectations from games. There are still many areas

to be investigated and uncovered in computer games and language learning in different

game modes and genres. Further research studies can come up with more in-depth and

comprehensive qualitative data collection tools to uncover other opinions of gamers

on language learning in different game modes and genres. As an additional means of

data collection and analysis, think-aloud protocols can be applied to gather deeper

insights into the experiences of the participants regarding computer games and

language learning with increased control over the experience of the participants and

better understanding of participant experiences related to in-game language learning

and practicing activities.

265

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277

APPENDICES

A. QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Background Information

This section aims to gather information regarding your personal, educational, and

gaming background.

Age:

_________________________________________________________________

Country:

_________________________________________________________________

Native Language/s:

_________________________________________________________________

Level of Education:

☐ High school graduate

☐ Undergraduate student

☐ Bachelor’s degree

☐ Master’s student

☐ Master’s degree

☐ PhD student

☐ PhD

Please select approximately how many hours you play the genres below every week:

Up to 1

hour

1-2 Hours

2-3 Hours

3-4 Hours

5 Hours or

Action

☐

Adventure

☐

Role-playing

☐

Strategy

☐

Simulation

☐

278

Please choose your current level of English based on your previous education and/or

certificates. If you are not sure about your English level, please check the Common

European Framework of Reference descriptors from the following link:

https://www.coe.int/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/table-1-

cefr-3.3-common-reference-levels-global-scale:

☐ A1

☐ A2

☐ B1

☐ B2

☐ C1

☐ C2

279

2. Action Games

This section aims at finding out about your language learning and practice experiences

in action games. Please report the frequency of your language learning and practicing

experiences in a typical action game session of yours while answering the questions.

Action games are characterized by using physical capabilities such as quick response

times and hand-eye coordination in achieving in-game goals. Subgenres of action

games include genres like shooter games, fighting games, platform games, and

survival games. Some popular action games are Counter Strike: Global Offensive,

Doom, Call of Duty, PUBG, Fortnite, Valorant, Grand Theft Auto V, Red Dead

Redemption II, Batman: Arkham Knight, Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, and Street

Fighter V.

Please write the action games that you play. If you are not sure about the genre of any

game that you play, you can search it on wikipedia.com, ing.com or igdb.com to learn

its genre.

____________________________________________________________________

Which one do you prefer more in action games?

☐ Single-player

☐ Multiplayer

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in action games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Meaning of a word

☐

Spelling of a word

☐

Pronunciation of a word

☐

Meaning of a grammar

structure

☐

Spelling of a grammar

structure

☐

Pronunciation of a

grammar structure

☐

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in action games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Reading

☐

Listening

☐

Writing

☐

Speaking

☐

280

3. Adventure Games

This section aims at finding out about your language learning and practice experiences

in adventure games. Please report the frequency of your language learning and

practicing experiences in a typical adventure game session of yours while answering

the questions. Adventure games require players to complete levels and objectives by

exploration and problem solving through the lens of the protagonist. Subgenres of

Adventure games include text-based games, puzzle games, narrative games, and visual

novels. Some popular adventure games are the Walking Dead, Terraria, Indiana Jones

and the Staff of Kings, Welcome to Elk, the Curse of the Monkey Island, the Wolf

Among Us, the Longest Journey, Grim Fandango, Primordia and Tales of the Neon

Sea, and the Forgotten City.

Please write the adventure games that you play. If you are not sure about the genre of

any game that you play, you can search it on wikipedia.com, ing.com or igdb.com to

learn its genre.

____________________________________________________________________

Which one do you prefer more in adventure games?

☐ Single-player

☐ Multiplayer

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in adventure games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Meaning of a word

☐

Spelling of a word

☐

Pronunciation of a word

☐

Meaning of a grammar

structure

☐

Spelling of a grammar

structure

☐

Pronunciation of a

grammar structure

☐

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in adventure games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Reading

☐

Listening

☐

Writing

☐

Speaking

☐

281

4. Role-playing Games

This section aims at finding out about your language learning and practice experiences

in role-playing games. Please report the frequency of your language learning and

practicing experiences in a typical role-playing game session of yours while answering

the questions. In role-playing games, players take the roles of a character in a fictional

setting to complete a storyline. Subgenres of RPGs involve MMORPGs and Sandbox

RPGs. Some popular RPGs are the Witcher III, Cyberpunk 2077, The Elder Scrolls V:

Skyrim, World of Warcraft, Kingdom Come: Deliverance, Mount & Blade: Warband,

Baldur's Gate, Diablo, and Dragon Age.

Please write the role-playing games that you play. If you are not sure about the genre

of any game that you play, you can search it on wikipedia.com, ing.com or igdb.com

to learn its genre.

____________________________________________________________________

Which one do you prefer more in role-playing games?

☐ Single-player

☐ Multiplayer

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in role-playing games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Meaning of a word

☐

Spelling of a word

☐

Pronunciation of a word

☐

Meaning of a grammar

structure

☐

Spelling of a grammar

structure

☐

Pronunciation of a

grammar structure

☐

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in role-playing games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Reading

☐

Listening

☐

Writing

☐

Speaking

☐

282

5. Strategy Games

This section aims at finding out about your language learning and practice experiences

in strategy games. Please report the frequency of your language learning and practicing

experiences in a typical strategy game session of yours while answering the questions.

In strategy games, players have to rely on thinking both carefully and quickly to defeat

their enemies. Subgenres of strategy games include real-time strategy games, turn-

based strategy games, and tower defense games. Some popular strategy games are Age

of Empires II, Rome: Total War, Warcraft III, League of Legends, Defense of the

Ancients, Civilization V, Red Alert 2, and Heroes of the Storm.

Please write the strategy games that you play. If you are not sure about the genre of

any game that you play, you can search it on wikipedia.com, ing.com or igdb.com to

learn its genre.

______________________________________________________________

Which one do you prefer more in strategy games?

☐ Single-player

☐ Multiplayer

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in strategy games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Meaning of a word

☐

Spelling of a word

☐

Pronunciation of a word

☐

Meaning of a grammar

structure

☐

Spelling of a grammar

structure

☐

Pronunciation of a

grammar structure

☐

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in strategy games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Reading

☐

Listening

☐

Writing

☐

Speaking

☐

283

6. Simulation Games

This section aims at finding out about your language learning and practice experiences

in simulation games. Please report the frequency of your language learning and

practicing experiences in a typical simulation game session of yours while answering

the questions. A simulation game aims to copy real life like scenarios as realistically

as possible. Subgenres of simulation games include sports games, racing games, and

life simulations. Some popular simulation games are FIFA 2021, eFootball PES 2020,

The Sims 4, Euro Track Simulator 2, F1 2021, Microsoft Flight Simulator, Farming

Simulator 19, SimCity, and Kerbal Space Program.

Please write the simulation games that you play. If you are not sure about the genre of

any game that you play, you can search it on wikipedia.com, ing.com or igdb.com to

learn its genre.

____________________________________________________________________

Which one do you prefer more in simulation games?

☐ Single-player

☐ Multiplayer

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in simulation games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Meaning of a word

☐

Spelling of a word

☐

Pronunciation of a word

☐

Meaning of a grammar

structure

☐

Spelling of a grammar

structure

☐

Pronunciation of a

grammar structure

☐

How often do you learn the target language knowledge below in simulation games?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

Always

Reading

☐

Listening

☐

Writing

☐

Speaking

☐

284

B. STREAM OBSERVATION FORM

Channel name

Platform

Stream link

L1 of the streamer

Game

Mode

Genre

Language Skills and Respective Indicators

Duration in

seconds

Frequency

Reading practice:

Listening practice:

Writing Practice:

Speaking Practice:

Notes, reflections, possible questions for

participants.

285

C. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

The interview will be initiated with the confirmation of the background

information of the participant from the questionnaire.

Then, the following questions will be asked to each participant. The participant

will answer these questions based on one game mode and genre combination.

1) What are the advantages of (game mode and genre) in learning target

language knowledge and practicing target language skills.

2) What are the disadvantages of (game mode and genre) in learning target

language knowledge and practicing target language skills.

3) How do you learn or practice target language knowledge and practicing

target language skills in (game mode and genre)?

At this point of the interview, the participant will be briefly informed about any

significant statistical outcomes in the questionnaires and the observations. Then, the

participants will be asked about their opinions based on these outcomes.

4) What are your opinions regarding the quantitative findings of the study? Do

you agree or disagree with any of the findings? What could be the reasons for these

outcomes?

5) What are your suggestions to improve learning target language knowledge

and practicing target language skills in (game mode and genre).

6)In your opinion, what would be the features of an ideal game for learning

target language knowledge and practicing target language skills?

Thank you for your participation and cooperation

286

D. LIST OF CODES, CATEGORIES AND THEMES OF THE INTERVIEW

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage

of codes

Opportunities provided by

computer games for

language learning

23.2%

Improvement in

target language

skills

7.2%

Practicing

speaking

1.6%

Improving fluency

1.2%

Practicing reading

1.2%

Asking questions

0.4%

Clarity

0.4%

Fluency

0.4%

Improve English

skills

0.4%

Trying to get

information

0.4%

Trying to use the

language correctly

0.4%

Using English

0.4%

Writing messages

0.4%

Exposure to

content

2.8%

Dialogues

0.8%

Following a story

0.8%

Cutscenes

0.4%

Descriptions

0.4%

Quests

0.4%

Learning target

language

knowledge

8.8%

Learning

vocabulary items

2.4%

Learning terms

2.0%

Learning words

via a dictionary

1.6%

Learning sentence

structure

0.8%

Accuracy

0.4%

Improving

pronunciation

0.4%

287

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage of

codes

Learning different

accents

0.4%

Learning grammar

0.4%

Learning verbs

0.4%

Communicating with

other players

4.4%

Socializing

1.6%

Authentic

communication

0.8%

Meeting new people

0.8%

Becoming friends

0.4%

Meaningful

communication

0.4%

Using idioms

0.4%

Limitations of

computer games

For language

learning

12.8%

Player-related issues

Not paying attention to

language

0.8%

Swear words

0.8%

Addiction

0.4%

Not playing with

foreigners

0.4%

Player preferences

0.4%

Playing the game in

native language

0.4%

Skipping cutscenes

0.4%

Skipping dialogues

0.4%

Game-related issues

8.8%

Lack of writing

2.0%

Lack of speaking

1.6%

Lack of listening

1.2%

Lack of complex

grammar usage

0.8%

Archaic language

0.4%

Confusion with

excessive content

0.4%

Lack of grammar after

a certain level

0.4%

Limited grammar

0.4%

288

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage of

codes

Not as effective as

another genre

0.4%

Time restriction

0.4%

Too much reading

0.4%

Uncommon words

0.4%

Ways of language

learning and practicing

in computer

Games

29.2%

Ways

vocabulary

learning

7.2%

Finding meaning

through context

1.6%

Using a dictionary

1.6%

Learning vocabulary

through reading

0.8%

Asking the meaning of

a word to a teacher

0.4%

Character quotes

0.4%

Getting exposed to

specific terms

0.4%

Learning game-specific

words

0.4%

Learning words to

communicate

0.4%

Searching the meaning

of a word on the

internet

0.4%

Trying to understand

the quests

0.4%

Using game-related

collocations

0.4%

Ways of

grammar

learning

5.2%

Implicit grammar

learning

0.8%

Getting exposed to

different grammar

structures

0.4%

Learning a structure

through context

0.4%

Learning distinct

grammar structures

0.4%

289

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage of

codes

Learning grammar structures by

using them in speech

0.4%

Learning grammar structures through

reading

0.4%

Learning grammar via repetition

0.4%

Learning grammar through the

expressions of characters

0.4%

Learning structures that are simple

0.4%

Practicing grammar knowledge

0.4%

Using grammar effectively for better

communication

0.4%

Using online translators

0.4%

Ways of reading

practice

Reading subtitles

1.6%

Reading quests

0.8%

Reading books in the game

0.4%

Reading chat messages

0.4%

Reading hints

0.4%

Reading in-game information

0.4%

Reading instructions

0.4%

Reading paragraphs

0.4%

Reading settings

0.4%

Reading speech bubbles

0.4%

The need to read fast

0.4%

Ways of listening

practice

3.6%

Listening to dialogues

0.8%

Listening to teammates

0.8%

Instructions that are read aloud

0.4%

Listening to other players

0.4%

Listening to people with different

accents

0.4%

Listening to quests

0.4%

Listening to the details of the story

0.4%

290

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage of

codes

Ways of writing

practice

2.8

Writing chat messages

0.8%

Noting down expressions

0.4%

Taking notes

0.4%

Writing in-game input

0.4%

Writing messages until

being ready to speak

0.4%

Writing via getting help

from the internet

0.4%

Ways of speaking

practice

4.4%

Speaking with teammates

1.2%

Speaking to oneself

0.8%

Casual conversations

0.4%

Getting into complex oral

communication

0.4%

Repeating expressions of

characters

0.4%

Speaking to AI

0.4%

Speaking to other players

0.4%

Speaking to people with

different accents

0.4%

Opinions about the

previous findings of

The study

19.6%

Opinions about

previous findings

7.2%

Agreement with the

findings

5.6%

Disagreement with the

findings

0.8%

Partial agreement with

the findings

0.8%

Reasons for the

previous findings

12.4%

Implicit learning

1.2%

Advantages of the genre

0.4%

Being story-based

0.4%

Characteristics of gamers

0.4%

291

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage of

codes

Focus on having fun instead

of structures

0.4%

Focusing on other skills

0.4%

Having authentic

communication

0.4%

Lack of complex grammar

structures

0.4%

Lack of correct grammar use

by other players

0.4%

Lack of focus on details

0.4%

Lack of focus on language

0.4%

Lack of listening in strategy

games

0.4%

Lack of other players

0.4%

Lack of some equipment

0.4%

Lack of time for practicing

0.4%

Lack of writing in strategy

games

0.4%

Limited speech in some

genres

0.4%

Misguided assumptions

0.4%

Not focusing on language

0.4%

Not having enough time to

focus on language

0.4%

Not having to write and

speak in some simulation

games

0.4%

Not trying hard enough

0.4%

Not using what is learned

0.4%

Paying attention to details

0.4%

Player goals

0.4%

Preferences of gamers

0.4%

Rich in quests

0.4%

The need for repetition

0.4%

The need to understand

everything

0.4%

Suggestions for

gamer language

learners

7.6%

Learning and

having fun

2.4%

Actively using what is

learned before

0.4%

292

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage

of codes

Being determined to use

structures

0.4%

Being passionate about

learning

0.4%

Focusing on learning as

well as having fun

0.4%

Not being afraid of

speaking

0.4%

Playing on international

servers

0.4%

Optimizing

gaming habits

2.8%

Taking notes while playing

1.2%

Talking to oneself

0.4%

Personalized gaming

experience

0.4%

Playing different type of

games

0.4%

Using previously learned

knowledge

0.4%

Using external

sources

2.4%

Searching unknown words

online

0.8%

Searching the meanings of

words

0.4%

Using a dictionary while

playing

0.4%

Watching movie

adaptations of games

0.4%

Watching streamers that

use the native language and

the target language

0.4%

Expectations of

gamer language

learners from

Computer games

7.2%

Feature-related

expectations

2.8%

Adding additional features

to existing successful

games

0.4%

Being able to talk to other

players

0.4%

Being able to use different

languages

0.4%

293

Theme

Category

Code

Frequency

Percentage of

codes

Interactive translation system

0.4%

Pop-up dictionary

0.4%

Simple design

0.4%

Subtitles

0.4%

Content-related

expectations

4.4%

An intriguing and complex storyline

0.4%

Audio input with good voice actors

0.4%

Being exposed to many words

0.4%

Being presented with choices

0.4%

Complicated content for a deeper

level of understanding

0.4%