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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – July 2018, volume 17 issue 3

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The Perceptions of Users Regarding Multimedia Principles in Mobile-Based

Japanese Language Learning

Mohd Sofi Mohammad Ayub

University Putra Malaysia

[email protected]

Othman Talib

University Putra Malaysia

[email protected]

Nyet Moi Siew

Faculty of Psychology and Education, Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MALAYSIA

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to explore the perceptions of users regarding the use of seven multimedia principles in

mobile-based Japanese language learning. Students and lecturers expounded their views on these seven

multimedia principles: Generative Learning, Spatial Contiguity, Temporal Contiguity, Coherence,

Modality, Redundancy and Personalization. A single group with intervening mobile-based Japanese

language learning design was used to test each of the multimedia principles. The participants consisted of

62 undergraduates and three Multimedia lecturers. A mixed method approach was employed where

questionnaires and interviews were used as data collection tools. The findings revealed that a majority of

the respondents agreed that the multimedia principles were appropriate for application in mobile-based

Japanese language learning, except for the Personalization and Redundancy principles. The respondents

expressed the need for incorporating on-screen text and formal style text in a mobile learning

environment. The findings of this study can facilitate instructors and developers to develop an optimal

mobile-based learning experience for Japanese language learners.

KEYWORDS: Japanese language, Mobile-based learning, Principles of Multimedia.

INTRODUCTION

Mobile-based learning has increased in popularity among kids, teenagers and adults. Mobile-based

learning is an education via the network using personal mobile devices, such as tablets and smartphones

to obtain learning materials through mobile apps, social interactions and online educational hubs. It is

flexible, allowing learners access to education anywhere and anytime. The development of mobile-based

learning apps has increased drastically with the aid of advances in multimedia to fulfil the needs of

targeted audiences or learners. Multimedia is the presentation of material using at least two of the

elements of sound (audio), text, still graphics, and motion graphics (visual) (Mayer, 2002). The purpose

of combining various types of media is to convey a message or information and to facilitate effective

learning among learners. Consequently, more and more mobile apps developers are integrating

multimedia into the learning apps to enrich the learning material. This has resulted in a progressive

mobile apps development in order to fulfil the requirements of modern learning needs and to reach the

high quality of multimedia material in mobile-based learning. However, to successfully deploy

multimedia in mobile-based learning environments, an effective approach is required to address the

multimedia issues jointly.

Previous research has unveiled the increasing complexity in the multimedia content (Rasiwasia, Costa

Pereira, Coviello, Doyle, Lanckriet, Levy, & Vasconcelos, 2010) as well as some pertinent issues in

designing effective multimedia-based instruction for education (Issa, Schuller, Santacaterina, Shapiro,

Wang, Mayer, & DaRosa, 2011). Most of these researches have reported issues of mismatch between

words and audio when the multimedia principles are applied in learning apps. In regards to these matters,

great effort is required to gather users’ perceptions in tandem with designing effective mobile-based

learning material. This study attempts to investigate the perception of users regarding the use of

multimedia principles in mobile-based learning.

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The Concept and Importance of Multimedia Principles in Education

The seven principles of multimedia proposed by Mayer (2002) has been widely referred to in designing

multimedia learning materials. The seven principles are Generative Learning Principle, Spatial Contiguity

Principle, Temporal Contiguity Principle, Coherence Principle, Modality Principle, Redundancy

Principle, and Personalization Principle. The first principle, Generative Principle, suggests that learners

learn better with words and pictures than from words alone. This principle allows learners to visualize

ideas and connect concepts with the help of pictures (Malik & Agarwal, 2012). It also cautions that

learners are less likely to connect the words with other knowledge when words are used alone which

usually lead to shallow learning. The second principle, the Spatial Contiguity Principle, suggests that

learners learn better when the corresponding words and pictures are presented near to each other rather

than far apart on the page or screen. This principle helps to attract learners’ attention by visualizing the

messages when an image is placed next to the words. However, learners will need to visualize the content

using cognitive processing in order to understand the intended messages.

Next, the Temporal Contiguity Principle suggests that learners learn better when the corresponding

portions of the narration and animation are presented at the same time. This principle allows learners to

cope with the learning content by making mental connections simultaneously in their working memory.

However, narration could be used during the presentation followed by an animation in successive

presentation that allows the learner to have two separate exposures to the explanation rather than one. The

forth principle, the Coherence Principle, suggests that people learn better when extraneous words,

pictures and sound are excluded from multimedia messages. A simple and concise slide presentation

makes it easier for a learner to focus and read the content. Albeit, this principle is not applied to learners

who learn subjects that require complex action in multimedia such as biology or medicine which demands

extraneous information of a complex structure (Issa et al., 2011)

Modality Principle, the fifth principle, suggests that people learn better from words and pictures when the

words are spoken rather than printed. This principle allows the learner to easily convert information from

oral information for further information processing (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). However, the learners’

visual channel might become overloaded when both words and pictures are presented visually. The sixth

principle, Redundancy Principle, suggests that people learn better from graphics and narrations than from

graphics, narrations and on-screen text. This principle renders ease to the learners’ visual sensory while

watching for the main content while listening to the audio. However, people have separate channels for

processing verbal and visual material that causes learners to select only a little amount of information to

be processed at one time (Clark & Mayer, 2016). Lastly, the Personalization Principle suggests that

people learn better from a multimedia lesson when words are transmitted through a conversational style

compared to a formal style (Mayer, 2005, 2009). According to Moreno and Mayer (2000), using audio

that represents a friendly mood and environment will increase the learners’ interest. In this study, the

conversational style was engaged to the learners by using “I” and “you” (e.g.: “Next, I would like you to

click on your name”) instead of a third person in the formal style (e.g.: “Next, click on the name at the

top”).

According to Clark and Mayer (2016), well-designed multimedia messages help to enhance the learner’s

ability to absorb and assimilate learning material. Thus, in order to design an effective multimedia

instruction that promotes understanding among learners, it is crucial to be guided by relevant multimedia

principles based on how learners learn.

Past research has reported the increasing sophistication in multimedia content that is not matched with the

multimedia principles (Rasiwasia et al., 2010), as well as issues in designing an effective multimedia

instruction and applying multimedia design principles to enhance learning in medical education (Issa et

al., 2011). Meanwhile, in the mobile context of multimedia learning, many issues and challenges brought

by the emerging technologies remain unanswered in learning foreign languages. For example, users’

experiences have been identified as one key factor in designing mobile-based multimedia learning, but its

provision in learning foreign languages has not been explored thoroughly. The area concerned with

multimedia design which is to enable mobile-based learning in a foreign language and exploration of

users’ perception on mobile-based learning are explored thoroughly for the purpose of this research.

Purpose of Research

It is particularly important to address challenges in applying information and multimedia processing

techniques for mobile-based learning in a foreign language. As yet, little is known on how multimedia

principles are applied to mobile-based learning in foreign languages, and consensus among instructional

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design researchers on how to design effective instructional messages across various media. In order to

comprehend these issues, effective ways of applying appropriate multimedia principles in mobile-based

learning are essential based on learners’ views and requirements. Thus, the impact of multimedia

principles to foreign language learners’ cognitive processing demands exploration in constructing a

meaningful mobile-based learning.

The Japanese language has long been regarded as one of the most difficult languages to learn (Miller,

1982). It is a challenge to learn Japanese due to the way the words are pronounced. and it involves three

writing styles: hiragana, katakana, and kanji. Kanji words are the most difficult yet useful to learn

because in kanji one letter has several meanings, pronunciations and different writing style. Non-native

Japanese learners are only exposed to hiragana, katakana, and kanji through learning materials. It is

particularly important to address the challenges encountered by non-native Japanese learners in applying

the principles of multimedia in mobile-based learning. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate users’

perceptions regarding the principles of multimedia in a mobile-based Japanese language learning context.

The objective of this study was therefore to explore the perceptions of Malaysian learners regarding

Mayer’s seven principles of multimedia when studying the Japanese language in a mobile-based learning

environment. The learners in this study refers to university students and lecturers. The result of this study

could serve as a guide for educators to look into how multimedia principles work on mobile-based

learning which can assist students to generally learn a new foreign language. The findings of this study

will provide general ideas for instructors and designers to select and implement any of Mayer’s

Multimedia Principles which are considered as effective in mobile-based learning.

Research Questions

The research questions guiding this study is as below:

What are the perceptions of university students and lecturers regarding Mayer’s seven principles of

multimedia in mobile-based Japanese language learning?

Methodology of Research

Research Participants

The participants consisted of university lecturers (n=3) and undergraduates (n=62), both from the Faculty

of Creative Multimedia in a private Malaysian multimedia university. Purposive sampling was used in

combination with non-random sampling in order to identify participants who have background or basic

knowledge in the principles of multimedia. Selection of participants who possessed knowledge, ideas or

experiences relevant to the research would best help the researcher achieve the research objectives

(Creswell, 2003). The mean age of the students was 23 years. Of them, 36 were males and 26 were

females. The students were generally Malaysians from a multi-racial group of Chinese, Malay and Indian.

The lecturers were experts in multimedia, who have a vast of experiences in the teaching and developing

multimedia. Participation in the research was voluntary and individual responses were strictly

confidential. After the written permissions of the relevant authorities were obtained, the students and

lecturers’ written consent was obtained.

Research Instrument

A mixed method approach used qualitative and quantitative methods to address research objectives in this

study. Research instruments comprised of questionnaires (quantitative data) and interviews (qualitative

data). A seven-item questionnaire was developed and used to gain opinions from the students and

lecturers. Each item represented each respective principle in the Seven Principles of Multimedia and was

accompanied by a screenshot of apps. A sample of questionnaire items is shown in Figure 1.

I think that spoken words are needed when words are presented.

1) Strongly disagree

2) Disagree

3) Neither agree nor disagree

4) Agree

5) Strongly agree

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Figure 1: A sample of questionnaire items

All responses were entered on a five-point Likert scale ranging from (1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree,

(3) Neither Agree or Disagree, (4) Agree to (5) Strongly Agree. Mean scores ≤3 refer to negative

perceptions toward the use of multimedia principles in mobile-based Japanese language learning. The

items in the questionnaire were reviewed by 25 students in a pilot study. The participants were asked to

detect errors, give feedback and critique the items in the questionnaire. Based on their feedback, the

questionnaire was improved.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with Multimedia lecturers and students in order to gain a

deeper insight about their view point regarding the use of the Seven Principles of Multimedia in mobile-

based learning. Semi-structured interviews were conducted by referring to screenshots of apps for seven

principles of multimedia. An example of interview questions is shown in Table 1. The interview

questions were validated by two lecturers in the field of multimedia-learning during the pilot study.

Interviews were audio taped and transcribed.

Table 1: An example of interview questions

Multimedia Principle Interview Questions

Multimedia Principle A suggested that people

learn better from words and pictures rather than

from words alone.

1 (a): After you have gone through the lesson, by

presenting the words and picture together, what

do you think about it?

1 (b): In your opinion, how Multimedia Principle

A can help student learn Japanese language

better?

Research Design

A single group with intervening mobile-based Japanese language learning design was used to test each of

the multimedia principles. The study utilized a ready-made free application available from iTunes named

‘Learn Japanese Easily’. This apps is available on https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/learn-japanese-

easily/id532810714?mt=8. The purpose of using the selected apps was because it had sufficient

multimedia elements to test the Seven Multimedia Principles in terms of words, pictures and audio.

Besides, the app is attractive, rich in colour and designed in a simple and neat way that would not

disorient the beginner learner. Learn Japanese Easily app also provides learners a relaxing and interactive

way of learning Japanese language. Learners can interact with the software by connecting words with

images to confirm their meaning.

The field study was administrated to two groups of undergraduates. The first group consisted of 22

students, while the second group consisted of 40 students. The participants, including the three lecturers

were exposed to Learn Japanese Easily app using smart phones and tablets. In addition, participants went

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through each tutorial within the application. A total of two hours were used to run the lessons for each

participating group.

The administering of questionnaires was followed by showcasing three pictures of mobile apps’ screen

shots for each item. The questionnaires were completed within 10-15 minutes. Follow-up semi-structured

interviews were conducted with three lecturers, as well as 10 students who were randomly selected from

each group.

Validity and Reliability of Questionnaire

Both the pilot and field study were conducted by the researcher over a duration of two weeks, with the

assistance of the multimedia lecturers in order to ensure the accuracy of the principles used and to

increase the reliability of the study. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS Version 22.

Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of questionnaire. The Cronbach’s Alpha

coefficient of internal consistency was computed to determine the degree to which the items on the same

instrument, measure the same construct in order to produce a consistent result (Cohen, Manion, &

Morrison, 2007). Chua (2006) stated that an alpha value within 0.65 and 0.95 was considered satisfactory.

The alpha value of the questionnaire based upon the 25 undergraduates’ scores was 0.795. For an

instrument with only seven items, the value showed a satisfactory indication of internal consistency. The

Corrected Item-Total Correlation and Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients After Each Item Was Deleted were

also calculated (Table 2). All the Corrected Item-Total Correlation was less than that Cronbach’s Alpha

Values if Item was Deleted. Consequently, this indicated that all the seven items contributed to the Seven

Principles of Multimedia in the instrument.

Table 2. Corrected Item-Total Correlation and Cronbach’s Alpha if Item was Deleted

Item Corrected Item-Total Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item was Deleted

1 .446 .592

2 .403 .598

3 .392 .600

.433

.040

.074

.498

.596

.686

.687

.572

Secondly, the internal consistency analysis was conducted to examine item-total correlations and inter-

item correlations. The item-total correlations varied from 0.25 to 0.69 (Table 3). According to

Büyüköztürk (2014), item-total correlations with 0.3 and above is considered acceptable. Overall, there

was a significant, weak to moderate and positive correlation between items and total scores. On the other

hand, the inter-item correlations varied from a weak 0.017 (between Item Five and Item Seven) to a

moderate 0.43 (between Item Three and Item Four). According to Clark and Watson (1995), average

inter-item correlations should fall somewhere between .15 and .50. Overall, there was a significant, weak

to moderate and positive correlation between test items, except items 5 and 6. Thus, items 5 and 6 were

revised in terms of wording as shown in Table 4. The initial items 5 and 6 were phrased as ‘I learn better

if the spoken word is presented’ and ‘I think animation and the spoken words are sufficient in the app’,

respectively.

Table 3. Correlation Coefficients between Items as well as Item and Total Scores

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7

Correlation Item 1

1.000 .314* .311* .192 .38 .136 .368**

Item 2

.314 1.000 .272* .220 -.041 -.050 .295*

Item 3

.311* .272* 1.000 .431** -.026 -.071 .318**

Item 4

.192 .220 .431* 1.000 .092 .117 .324**

Item 5

.038 -.041 -.026 .092 1.000 .108 .017

Item 6

.136 -.050 -.071 .117 .108 1.000 .068

Item 7

.368** .295* .318** .324** .017 .068 1.000

Total

.583** .594** .604** .595** .249* .327** .651**

Sig. (2-tailed) Item 1

- .011 .012 .126 .762 .282 .003

Item 2

.011 1.000 .029 .079 .743 .694 .017

Item 3

.012 .029 1.000 .000 .834 .572 .010

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Item 4

.126 .079 .000 1.000 .467 .351 .008

Item 5

.762 .743 .834 .467 1.000 .383 .894

Item 6

.282 .694 .572 .351 .393 1.000 .581

Item 7

.003 .017 .010 .008 .894 .591 1.000

Total

.000 .000 .000 .000 .045 .008 .000

*. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed)

**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)

Results of Research

Findings from the Quantitative Data (Questionnaire)

The results shown in Table 4 below are based on the perceptions of 62 students and 3 lecturers regarding

the Seven Principles of Multimedia in mobile-based Japanese language learning: Generative Learning,

Spatial Contiguity, Temporal Contiguity, Coherence, Modality, Redundancy and Personalization. For the

purpose of discussion, Strongly Disagree (SD) and Disagree (D) are stated as “disagree”, Agree (A) and

Strongly Agree (SA) as “agree”, while “Neither Agree or Disagree” is maintained.

Table 4. Summary of Percentage, Means and Standard Deviations of Questionnaire Responses

Item Strong

agree

Agr

Neither

Agree or

Disagree

Disagr

Strong

disagr

% (N = 65)

1 The pictures and words help me

to learn faster about the content.

46 54 - - - 4.4

.50

2 The location of the pictures and

words help me to learn the

content better.

19 70 11 - - 4.0

.61

3 By presenting words, pictures,

and pronunciation at the same

time, I understand the language

faster.

37 52 11 - - 4.2

.66

4 A simple presentation like

‘next’, ‘previous’, ‘repeat’ and

‘exit’ elements are necessary

when learning the Japanese

language in this apps.

43 57 - - - 4.4

.50

5 I think that spoken words are

needed when words are

presented.

50 49 1 - - 4.6

.56

6 I think that on-screen text is

needed with the narration in the

apps.

43 48 9 - - 4.3

.64

7 I think the formal style instead

of conversational style, helps

me to listen and to speak

Japanese sentences better.

62 34 4 - - 4.5

.59

The results show that all respondents agreed that, i) the pictures and words help them to learn faster about

the content (Generative Learning Principle), and that ii) ‘next’, ‘previous’, ‘repeat’ and ‘exit’ elements are

necessary when learning the Japanese language in this app (Coherence Principle). Almost all respondents

(99% and 96% respectively) agreed that the spoken texts are needed when words are presented (Modality

Principle), and the formal style helps them to listen and to utter Japanese sentences better (violation of

Personalization Principle). A total of 91% agreed that on-screen text is needed for the narration in the

apps (violation of Redundancy Principle). On the other hand, a total of 89% agreed that i) the location of

the pictures and words help them to learn the content better (Spatial Contiguity Principle), and ii) the

simultaneous presentation of words, pictures and pronunciation helps them to understand the language

faster (Temporal Contiguity Principle). None of the respondents disagreed with the use of the Seven

Principles of Multimedia in mobile-based Japanese language learning.

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Findings from the Qualitative Data (Interviews)

The interview data were analyzed to ascertain whether the responses from the respondents matched the

ideas put forward in the questionnaire. The abbreviations used for the analysis are: “S” represents

Student, “L represents Lecturer, “G1” represents Group 1, and ‘G2’ represents Group 2. The findings on

each principle is described as below.

The Redundancy Principle. According to the Redundancy Principle proposed by Mayer and Moreno

(2003), learning is diminished if animation, narration and on-screen text are used together. However, the

majority of respondents in this study found that this principle was inapplicable in mobile-based Japanese

language learning. Both lecturers and students believed that on-screen text would allow students to learn

better in terms of understanding by reading the delivered information in text especially in a foreign

language. The respondents further insisted that listening alone would make it difficult for a beginner to

catch up. Sample responses include:

“For the learning purpose, on-screen text allows students to understand the lesson better”

(S10, G2; L01); “..in the context of foreign language just by listening is hard to catch up”

(S2, G1); “..student tend to read, especially when they can’t catch up or understand spoken

words of narration” (L02); “...even with all the design of motional form of pictures in and

out, people still tend to read the subtitle without looking at the animation which perhaps will

present the most information” (L03).

Besides, both lecturers and students agreed that this principle will come into play when the spoken words

or audio are not working properly.

“..it is a good thing to have on screen text especially when the audio is not that clear, or

having lost for catching up the spoken words” (L01); I might mishear from audio, so I really

need screen text on this apps” (S22, G2).

This principle is mainly to allow young learners to reach the highest focus in learning. The findings of

this study, however, did not support this principle as claimed by both lecturers and students. Thus, the

Redundancy Principle was discovered to be inapplicable in mobile-based Japanese language learning.

The Principal of Personalization. The Personalization principle suggests that people learn better from a

multimedia lesson when words are presented in a conversational style rather than formal style. The study

found that two out of the three lecturers felt that this principle was inapplicable. The lecturers believed

this principle should not be applied in mobile learning unless it could provide clear and ample instruction

for learners to follow and learn. A majority of students felt that words presented in the formal style was

sufficient for them to learn, as it would not complicate or distort the text. Below are some of their

comments:

“This application is friendly enough, no need conversational words in learning” (S41, G1);

“It is straight forward, easy for me to understand”. (S13, G1); “Formal is ok, simple and

easy to catch up (S21, G1; S34, G2); “As long as navigation is allowed, formal is ok” (S32,

G2).

Nonetheless, both lecturers and students in this study believed that this principle was applicable in video

learning in creating a warm and friendly environment.

“Will be more friendly if conversation is inside the video” (S04, G1); “Conversation creates

a warm environment in video learning” (S03, G2); “It gives better experience to users to

connect with the lessons using video” (S22, G2).

This principle is mainly to assist students’ learning by creating and stimulating the learning environment,

with the main objective of building a connection between the lesson and the learner. However, this study

does not support this principle as claimed by students since they could accept a formal style of presenting

words. Students preferred a straight forward and fast type of learning, which allowed them to easily read

and not overload their cognitive processing. Thus, this principle was recognized as not applicable in

mobile-based Japanese language learning.

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Principle of Generative Learning Theory. This principle suggests that students learn better when they

are presented with a combination of words and pictures rather than with words or pictures alone. From the

perspectives of both students and lecturers, it was found that they strongly agreed with this principle.

According to lecturers, they were able to memorize the kanji word for “apple” when they saw the picture

of an apple. The pictures helped in visualizing and remembering the learning process much easier, while

the text displayed pronunciations in English to encourage proper pronunciation. Besides, students also

agreed that they needed to have a picture paired together with a word to learn better compared to using

words alone. The combination of words and pictures allowed the students to detect the correct name of an

animal when the picture of an animal was presented to him or her. Their responses included:

“The pictures of the objects helped me to remember the words” (S11, G1); “…by

presenting the words and picture together, it will help me to identify the Japanese words

better” (L02); “…since I’m not familiar with the Japanese words or language, the words

will help me to pronounce, while images will support in visualising the words” (L03);

“By placing words and pictures together, it will allow students to identify the name of the

animal” (L01).

Participants also remarked that the pictures helped them visualise the words and their meanings. In their

words:

“The Japanese words are hard to learn. Pictures help me to visualise the words” (S40,

G2); “Images does help visualize and memorize the words better” (S11, G1); “I can

relate it with my memory after seeing the picture” (S14, G1); “I need pictures to display

the definition” (S27, G2); “I need pictures because the hardest part in Japanese is words

and its pronunciation” (S34, G2); “Picture helps to give a clearer view of the terms”

(S30, G2); “Pictures show me the meaning of words” (S11, G1).

This principle aided students in building links between pictures and words. However, if words alone were

presented, the learner could only build a “verbal” mental representation, but hardly build a “visual”

mental representation. This principle is mainly to assist students’ learning by understanding what the

verbs are and by mentally visualizing the content when the words are presented as per agreed by lecturers.

Therefore, when developing multimedia materials for language learning, both words and pictures should

be included. Thus, this principle was found applicable in mobile-based Japanese language learning.

Principle of Spatial Contiguity. This principle suggests that students learn better when words and

pictures are presented near to each other rather than being placed apart. Both the students and lecturers

found this principle to be applicable. According to lecturers, this principle helped them to relate and link

both elements together as a single item. They further added this will help them in remembering and

memorizing the text much better. As for students, this principle helped them to locate the picture easily as

they tended to have a habit of referring to the nearest picture. Students were eager to know the visual

form of the texts they read. According to the students, looking at the nearest picture will help them to

understand the written words much faster. Besides, students were easily attracted to an interesting or even

just a simple picture that was presented near to the words. They will look at the picture first before the

words. Sample responses include:

“When looking at the pictures and words that are near to each other, I’m able to relate

the two items together as one” (L01); “Since I’m not familiar with Japanese language, by

presenting the images near to the words will help me to remember the text better” (L03);

“Pictures and words are noticeable when they are near” (S32, G2); “When I read the

text, I need to know the visual form of the words” (S12, G2);

“When I read the words, I

will immediately look at the nearest picture” (S10, G1); “I learn faster when pictures are

placed near to the words” (S11, G1).

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From this study, it is also found that the pictures play an important role to attract student’s attention to

prevent boredom while the reading of texts. From there, students were capable to foresee and construct

relationships between pictures and the text. This principle aims to relate the connection of verbs and

visuals when placing pictures beside words as agreed by lecturers. Besides, learners can locate the picture

easily as a visual aid in their learning. Therefore, when developing multimedia materials, words and

pictures should be placed near to each other to allow learners to identify the connection between the

pictures and words. Thus, this principle was found applicable in mobile-based Japanese language

learning.

Principle of Temporal Contiguity. This principle suggests that students learn better when words and

pictures are presented together rather than in succession. Both the students and lecturers found this

principle to be applicable. Both lecturers and students agreed that this principle would help them to see

the connection between the picture and words as a whole. From there, students were able to perceive the

information faster while visualizing the images in their mind. From the mobile learning lesson, students

were found to be able to identify the words easily by recalling the picture as a whole as they could view

the single page from the mobile content. Feedback included:

“Engaging words and pictures at the same time make me understand better” (S24, G2);

“From the single page, I get to know what I see” (L3); “It is easier to understand when I

see the whole page” (S28, G2); “I can easily relate the pictures to words at the same

time” (S12, G1);“I prefer to see the words and pictures appear as a whole” (S08, G1);

“My brain is able to understand quickly when seeing the whole texts with pictures”

(S12, G1); “It is better to show up together for our viewing and understanding” (S14,

G1); “Help me to understand the content in instant” (S14, G1); “Single glance help me

to link the words with the pictures” (L2).

This principle aims to relate the connection of verbs and the visual together as one. When developing

multimedia material, the words and pictures should be presented as a whole instead of in succession.

Thus, this principle was found applicable in mobile-based Japanese language learning.

Principle of Coherence. The principle of Coherence suggests that students learn better when extraneous

words, pictures and sounds are excluded from the multimedia message rather than to include them. Both

students and lecturers found this principle was applicable. Lecturers believed that eliminating extraneous

multimedia element inside the multimedia presentation would make the learning process more focused

with less distracting elements on the main content. In addition, they said that the added irrelevant images

would only disrupt the concentration of students. They noted that:

“Eliminating extraneous multimedia element from the presentation will make the learning

more focused” (L01);“..student has limited capability to absorb information and to focus

on content information for a longer period. It will be best to avoid complicated content

for learners” (L02);“..if adding an irrelevant images, concentration will be distracted”

(L03).

Students also shared parallel views with the lecturers regarding this principle as they would love to learn

from more straight-forward and simple content. According to the students, they would rather avoid

heavy-visually loaded information. Besides, students do not like unorganized and chaotic multimedia

presentation. The students agreed that a simple design with minimal elements would help in directing

them to the point of content. Below are some of their comments:

“It is good to keep as simple as possible. Minimal elements help learner to learn straight

to the point” (S02, G1); “Make the apps easier to use and straight forward” (S13, G2);

“These simple function and elements are necessary to have inside the content for modern

apps” (S05, G1); “It is good as it is not complicated” (S20, G1); “The picture is in the

centre and organized. It is at the right position for us to view”

(S13, G1).

Overall, the findings suggest that irrelevant words and pictures should be excluded when developing

multimedia material. This principle aimed to reduce an overload of cognitive processing. Thus, this

principle was found applicable in mobile-based Japanese language learning.

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The Modality Principle. The principle of Modality suggests words to be presented as speech rather than

on-screen text. This principle claims that student’s learning is enhanced when the speech narration is used

inside the presentation. Both students and lecturers in the study found this principle applicable. Based on

the collective experience in this study, participants were inclined to remember the names of the animals

easily when they listened to verbal pronunciations at the same time. The lecturers asserted it was a good

way to learn while listening to the verbal utterances from the audio at the same time. The spoken words

help to navigate the learners to become better readers which contributes to better focus on the content. It

also works as an alternative option for the vision when the visual input is overloaded. Related responses

are:

“Our mind need the sense of hearing to remember faster” (S13, G1); “When the words

are spoken, I can remember the names of the animal better” (L02); “.. it helps to direct

me to the information of the slide by reading and listening at same time” (S02, G1);

“Spoken words will help me in focusing the content of learning when I’m about to lose

concentration of eye sight.” (S03, G1); “.. people tend to hear and see … it is a good way

to learn when hearing and watching on screen” (S13, G1).

Besides, the lecturers agreed that this principle should be applied in language learning, as it mainly

aims on the production of correct pronunciation especially in the foreign language. Students

expressed that sound enhances their learning in the context of learning a foreign language. In

addition, they learned to have better enunciation and make correct pronunciations through the

lesson. Since the students were novice learners, the verbally uttered words definitely helped them

to learn better. They commented:

“..help students to get a proper and better pronunciation of the words than just reading

it” (L01); “I need sound for learning foreign language” (S40, G2); “The audio helps me

to pronounce the words correctly” (S01, G1); “It is a lot easier to pronounce the words

when someone has said it correctly” (S14, G1); “Our brain can easily learn with visual

and sound” (G32, G2); “It will make me focus on the learning” (S12, G1); “I might

misread, so I need sound” (S38, G2); “A must because it shows us how to pronounce

correctly” (S10, G1).

Spoken words also attract and create fun in a multimedia lesson to avoid a dull learning experience.

Students learned better when verbal input was presented as speech rather than just as text alone.

“The Japanese pronunciation is weird but fun to hear” (S14, G1); “Audio make the

lesson more enjoyable to learn” (S12, G1); “More fun when hearing the pronunciation of

Japanese” (S15, G2); “Motivate me to catch up and speak together” (S15, G1);

“Listening to sound is more fun” (S21, G2); “…so that user won’t get bored” (S10, G1);

“Make the apps more interesting” (S16, G1); “It will grab my attention for sure” (S05,

G1).

Based on the results, a meaningful learning experience can be achieved when learners are able to build

connections between corresponding visual and verbal representations. In conclusion, it is necessary to

incorporate spoken words to support learners’ acts of listening while they read texts to help them focus

and understand the lesson better. This principle aims to support learning using sound as a learning aid.

Thus, this principle was categorized as applicable in mobile-based Japanese language learning.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The research stipulates that the Seven Principles of Multimedia are applicable in the context of mobile-

based Japanese language learning based on the students’ perspectives in the questionnaire, except for the

Personalization and Redundancy principles. The findings from the interviews similarly revealed that a

majority of the students and lecturers disclosed that the Redundancy and Personalization principles were

unsuitable for the mobile-based Japanese language learning.

The Redundancy Principle suggests that learners focus on a single processing system in selecting

information so that they can attain maximum focus in learning. However, both lecturers and students

stressed the need for on-screen text, other than animation and narration to be displayed in a mobile-

learning environment. Particularly, beginner learners emphasized the need of the texts to display the

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pronunciation and definition of kanji words upon seeing the picture and listening to the pronunciation in

order to help them learn better. They found that listening to mobile audios are not enough because they

may not be entirely clear. The findings were inconsistent with previous researches (Mayer, Heiser, &

Lonn, 2001; Moreno & Mayer, 2002) that on-screen text can overload the visual channel by presenting

too much information for visual working memory to process simultaneously.

Meanwhile, the personalization principle aims to assist students’ learning by creating and stimulating the

learning environment, which involves building connections between the lesson and the learner. Previous

research on the personalization principle in multimedia learning (Kurt, 2011) found that conversational

style used in the software motivated learners to study and feel as if they were talking to a human. Yet, the

learning performance of this condition did not really reflect the users’ needs in the mobile-based Japanese

language learning environment. The participants felt that the content would be too packed and complex if

the conversational style text was applied in the mobile. Students also preferred the straight forward formal

style text in their lesson instead of reading a lot of friendly conversational texts in the mobile context.

They agreed that a simple designed mobile environment will decrease the mental load for cognitive

processing.

In summary, the research findings conclude that only five multimedia principles of Mayer (2002) were

found applicable in mobile-based Japanese language learning. These multimedia principles were

Generative Learning Principle, Spatial Contiguity Principle, Temporal Contiguity Principle, Coherence

Principle, and Modality Principle.

RECOMMENDATION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

It is necessary to identify the multimedia principles which deserve to be included with proper

instructional method before developing the mobile learning material. It is important to refer to experts

such as Multimedia lecturers or instructors before proceeding with the implementation of the principles in

the mobile learning material. Careful consideration of these principles enables instructors to form the

basis of an implementation strategy for using mobile technology, which can offer the best manner for

optimal learning. Adding screen texts during the narration does potentially improve students’ learning,

but its uses should be based on cognitive theory and intended language users.

This research shows that images and sounds possess great potential to improve human learning,

especially when the goal is to promote deep understanding. However, in order to effectively use them, it

is necessary in future research to investigate how people learn from pictorial and verbal media. The seven

principles are based on a cognitive theory of multimedia learning and were tested by previous rigorous

experimental studies. Yet, the seven principles should not be taken as rigid procedures to be followed in

all situations. Instead, for future study, it is suggested that researchers employ a study which investigates

how multimedia presentations should be designed to promote the cognitive processes, which involved

meaningful learning. Finally, more scrutiny and research is required in the area of multimedia education

so that its design and content reach the standards of educational procedure with add-on edutainment.

Despite the focus on multimedia principles used in a mobile-based learning environment for adult

learners in this study, it can also be applied to all levels in education and carried-out within different age

groups.

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